求英语介绍诺贝尔经济学获奖者纳什

attractive..........................

吸引人的_有道词典吸引人的attractive；fascinating；absorbing；intriguing；alluring更多释义>>[网络短语]吸引人的 attractive;tempting;intriguing极吸引人的 zingy;compelling;stunning看上去吸引人的 look attractive

attractive 最合适。用来修饰人和物都比较到位！

absorb vt.吸收,使全神贯注 名词absorption absorb one"s views/knowledge/information 接受某人的意见/知识/信息；absorb the full meaning of a remark 吃透或理解一句话的全部含义；be absorbed in 专注于,聚精会神(干某事) 形容词absorbing 极有趣的,吸引人的. obtain vt.获得,得到 形容词obtainable可被得到的 obtain a degree 获得学位；obtain knowledge 获得知识；obtain respect 赢得尊敬 receive KK:[] DJ:[] vt. 1.收到,接到 I"ve just received a telegram. 我刚收到一份电报. 2.得到,受到,遭受 They received the support of the workers. 他们得到工人们的支持. 3.接待,欢迎;接受,接纳;承认 His speech was well received. 他的演讲很受欢迎. They received us most cordially. 他们热忱地接待了我们. 4.(无线电、电视)接收 5.容纳 6.收买(赃物) 7.接球 vi. 1.收到;得到;接收 It is more blessed to give than to receive. 施比受更有福. 2.会客,接待 Mr.Reed receives on Thursday afternoons. 里得先生星期四下午接见客人. 3.接发球 digest vt.消化,领悟 n.文摘 名词digestion reader"s digest 读者文摘；digest new knowledge 吸收新知识 区别: absorb〓普通用词,词义广泛,既可指吸收光、热、液体等具体东西,又可指吸收知识等抽象概念的东西. obtain是得到,获取(或许是通过自己主动的一番努力取得的) receive是收到,接到(或许是别人或其他方面所给予的,有些被动地接收的意思) digest〓侧重在消化道内改变食物的化学结构后被人体吸收

absorbed adj. 被吸收的；一心一意的； absorbingly adv. 十分有趣地，引人入胜地 例句： When sunlight strikes an object, some of the energy is absorbed and some is reflected. 当阳光照射到物体上时，一些能量被吸收，一些能量被反射 扩展资料 　　He stopped and watched with amusement to see the child so absorbed. 　　他停下来饶有兴味地看这个孩子如此全神贯注的`样子。 　　Gradually add 1 cup of milk, stirring until the liquid is absorbed. 　　逐渐加入一量杯牛奶，一边搅动直到液体被吸收。 　　Under normal conditions, only about 20 to 40 percent of vitamin E is absorbed. 　　在正常情况下，只有约百分之二十到百分之四十的维生素E被吸收。 　　She seemed totally absorbed in her book. 　　她好像完全被这本书迷住了。

amicable ,友好的,aesthetic 有审美能力的 alert 机敏的,（思维）敏捷的 affable 易人的,和蔼的（指容易交谈） amiable 和蔼可亲的able 能干的、聪明的absorbed 全神贯注的absorbing 引人入胜的、极有趣的accommodating 乐于助人的accurate 精确的、准确的amused愉快的, 开心的, 好玩的amusing有趣的ample充足的, 丰富的你可以从这些单词里面挑5个好的单词，希望我的答案能够帮助你，望采纳~~~~

be absorbed in专心于，全神贯注于用法be absorbed in后跟名词、名词词组或动名词，表示专心于做某事。 例句：All the students are absorbed in the teacher"s wonderful lecture.所有的学生都在认真听老师精彩的演讲。absorbing oneself 自我陶醉区分absorbed和absorbing：absorbed是过去分词形容词，表示人的情感，absorbing是现在分词形容词，则表示物的特征。Absorbing (长时间)“吸引人的，引人入胜的”;而absorbed[名词前不常用] (人) "被.吸引住;专心致志，全神贯注”， 如:1. "Two Sisters" is an absorbing read.《两姊妹》是-一本引人入胜的读物。 2. She seemed totally absorbed in her book.她好像完全被这本书迷住了。3. They were completely absorbed in each other.两人彼此倾心。

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你好。absorb是个及物动词，后面必须加上一个宾语。如果一定要用absorbing的话，句子就是：Having absorbed himself in the computer games,the boy no longer put his heart into study.或者：Absorbing himself in the computer games , the boy no longer put his heart into study.我的两句中，第一句更符合英语的在非谓语动词形式上的习惯用法。

absorb，主要用作及物动词，意为“吸收；吸引；承受；理解；使…全神贯注”。 absorb用法 1：absorb的基本意思是“吸收”,可指吸收液体、气体、光、热、能等,也指吸收抽象的知识、文化、经验、教训、思想、方法等,含有“以此丰富了吸收者”之意,并暗示“吸收”的渐进性和彻底性。absorb作“吞并; 并入”解时指把一个较小的国家、团体或组织变成一个较大的国家、团体或组织的一部分,被吞并者失去了自己原有的个性或特征。 2：absorb作“吸收”解时主语可以是人,也可以是物,宾语则是无生命的事或物;作“吞并”解时主语和宾语都是国家、团体或组织;作“使全神贯注”解时主语是人、事或物,宾语是人或人的精力、兴趣等;作“减轻…的作用”解时主要用于打击、碰撞等;作“耗费,耗去”解时主要用于大量的金钱、时间等;作“承受; 承担,对付 ”解时主要用于变化、结果、费用等。 3：absorb作“吸收”“吞并”“使全神贯注”解时常用于被动结构。be absorbed作“聚精会神地干某事”解时应接“in+动名词”,不能接动词不定式。 absorb固定搭配 Direct Absorb 直接吸收 absorb in 全神贯注于;专心于;中吸收 absorb dose 吸收计量;吸收剂量 absorb overhead 已分配间接费用 absorb energy 吸收能量;吸热 Absorb shock 吸收震荡;减震;消震 Absorb type 吸收芯体型 absorb shocks 吸震 absorb protection 接收原护;吸收原护 absorb例句 1、Black walls absorb a lot of heat during the day. 黑色墙壁在白天吸收大量的热。 2、His mind was like a sponge, ready to absorb anything. 他的脑子跟海绵似的，什么都能吸收。 3、It"s a lot of information to absorb all at once. 要一下子消化这么多资料，真是很难。 4、He stood still, absorbing every detail of the street. 他一动不动地站着，不放过街上的每一细微之处。 5、The surrounding small towns have been absorbed into the city. 四周的小城镇已并入这座城市。 以上就是我整理的absorb用法及搭配，感谢阅读。

吸声例句:1.Wait sound-absorbing the noise reduction soundproofingplaces. 慢遥吧等吸音降噪隔声场所。2.On top of the electrodes is a sound-absorbing pad, whichvibrates when sound waves hit and causes the zinc oxide wiresto compress and release, creating an electrical current. 电极的顶部有一个吸音垫，当它被声波击中时便开始振动，使氧化锌丝收缩释放，产生电流。

Theseideasmaybedevelopedbychildrenabsorbingideasthroughthepopularmedia.这些想法可能是儿童通过大众媒体吸收思想而形成的。absorbingideasthroughthepopularmedia是现在分词短语作定语修饰children。一个句子里只能有一个谓语动词（当然可以是几个动词连用），出现第二个动词时，要么用现在分词形式，要么用动词不定式，要么是过去分词，要取决于句子的意思。请采纳！

吸引人的: 1. absorbing2. attractive3. alluring4. come-hither5. fascinating6. fetching 其它相关解释: 例句与用法: 1. 这项新产品，确切地说是这种新款式的衬衫，并不是非常吸引人的。 This new product, or rather, this new style of shirt, is not very attractive. 2. 这份工作最吸引人的是薪水高. One of the main attractions of the job is the high salary. 3. 不可爱的未被认为在视觉上吸引人的 Not deemed visually attractive. 4. 城市的华灯，戏院，电影等等是十分吸引人的东西。 The city"s bright lights, theatres, films, etc, are great attractions.

be absorbed in而不是be absorbing in这个词组放在开头是(being) absorbed in his work

是英文interesting的谐音，意思是“有趣”，一般指“有点意思”，通常被用来形容有意思的事件或人物。英文interestinginteresting 英[u02c8u026antru0259stu026au014b] 美[u02c8u026antru026astu026au014b]adj. 有趣的; 令人感兴趣的，有趣的; 引起兴趣的; 令人关注的;[例句]It was interesting to be in a different environment到一个全新的环境中是很有意思的。[其他] 原型： interest扩展资料：单词详解：1、用法：adj. (形容词)1）interesting的意思是“令人感兴趣的，有趣的”，指人或物时，表示具有能唤起某人心理或情感方面兴趣的能力，而不表示兴趣的程度或原因；指书、戏剧、影视等时，则表示具有较强的娱乐性，而且能使人消愁解闷。2）interesting在句中可用作定语、表语或宾语补足语。3）interesting的比较级和最高级是more interesting和most interesting。2、词义辨析：adj. (形容词)interesting， interested这两者分别是由interest的过去分词和现在分词而来的形容词，其区别是：1、interested有被动意义，意为“感兴趣的”，其主语或修饰的名词只能是人，其后常接介词in或动词不定式；interesting有主动意义，意为“能激发别人兴趣的”，其主语或所修饰的名词多为物或事，偶尔可为人，其后不接in或动词不定式。例如：The film is both interesting and instructive.这部电影既有趣又有教育意义。I have been greatly interested to note that all the performers were female.我注意到，所有的演员都是女性，这使我极感兴趣。2、interested可作“有私心的，有偏见的”解，而interesting无此义。

其实这题 简单 不要说复杂了。 答案是A 我给你解释一下。 这里的thought it was Sunday作插入语 看的时候可以先去掉 不影响句子意思。 再说主句 “when I went into the library yesterday afternoon”作状语 只是说明下时间。 I found Linda_____in her reading compeletly是主句了。 要加的动词应该是修饰Linda的 跟Linda的关系是动宾关系，也可以说是被动。但不是谓语，所以BC错，根据意思看 不需要用完成时态。 compeletly在这里作副词 修饰absorbed的。清楚了否，赏个分吧 楼主。 打字不容易撒。

其中，非谓语动词主动用现在分词，被动用过去分词。 非谓语动词及其短语前面带有逻辑主语，逻辑主语的代词又是主格，故常称为“独立主格”。“独立结构”在句

absorb的发音为英音：u0259bu02c8su0254u02d0b、美音：u0259bu02c8su0254u02d0rb。absorb在英语中是一个非常常用的动词，可以用于描述各种不同的吸收、承受、理解等情况。在使用时需要注意其不同的用法和搭配，以便正确地表达自己的意思。absorb的发音为英音：u0259bu02c8su0254u02d0b、美音：u0259bu02c8su0254u02d0rb。absorb可以与介词in连用，表示“吸收、吸入”的意思，如“absorb in what they were doing”（沉浸在他们正在做的事情中）；absorb还可以与介词by连用，表示“被吸收、被吸取”的意思，如“Most of the water was absorbed by the soil”（大部分的水被土壤吸收了）。英语中使用absorb的注意事项：1、注意动词时态absorb的动词时态包括现在时、过去时、过去分词和现在分词等形式，需要根据上下文的时态进行正确使用。例如，现在时为absorb，过去时为absorbed，过去分词为absorbed，现在分词为absorbing等。2、注意搭配的介词absorb可以与不同的介词搭配，如in表示“吸收、吸入”的意思，by表示“被吸收、被吸取”的意思等。在使用时需要注意搭配的介词是否正确。例如，可以说absorb in what they were doing，表示“沉浸在他们正在做的事情中”，或者absorb by what had happened，表示“被发生的事情所吸收”。3、注意语境和语气absorb有一定的语气和语境要求，需要根据上下文和交流情境进行判断和选择。例如，在表达“吸收”的意思时，可以用absorb来表示比较客观的吸收行为，也可以用swallow up来表示比较主观的吸收感觉。4、注意拼写和标点absorb的拼写和标点使用也需要遵循英语语法规则，避免拼写错误或标点不当。例如，可以说"The water was absorbed by the soil"，但不能说"The water was absorb by the soil"，因为absorb后面需要搭配介词by。

absorb的读音是：英[_b"s__b]。absorb的读音是：英[_b"s__b]。absorb的详尽释义是v.(动词)吸收，汲取使全神贯注，吸引全部注意力承受，经受，承担，忍受吸引理解，掌握合并，并吞承担（费用）占用（时间）使并入，把?并入耗去，耗费同化接受减轻作用收买，买进，收购进吞没，吞噬。absorb的例句是用作及物动词(vt.)Drysandabsorbswater.干沙吸收水份。一、详尽释义点此查看absorb的详细内容v.(动词)吸收，汲取使全神贯注，吸引全部注意力承受，经受，承担，忍受吸引理解，掌握合并，并吞承担（费用）占用（时间）使并入，把?并入耗去，耗费同化接受减轻作用收买，买进，收购进吞没，吞噬二、双解释义v.(动词)vt.吸收takeinaliquid,gasorothersubstancefromthesurfaceorspacearoundvt.使并入;吞并makesthsmallerbecomepartofsthlargervt.理解;掌握takesthintothemindandlearnorunderstanditvt.吸引全部注意力;使全神贯注interestsbverymuchsothattheypaynoattentiontoanythingelse;completelyfilltheattentionofvt.减轻?的作用reducetheeffectofablow,hit,etc.;reducetheharmfuleffectsofaphysicalforcevt.耗费,耗去useupalargesupplyofsth,especiallymoneyortimevt.承受;承担,对付dealwithchanges,effects,costs,etc.三、网络解释1.吸收：吸收(Absorb)魔法比消耗(Drain)魔法稍微贵一点当对象是体力值(Fatigue)、生命值(Health)、魔法值(Magicka)时,吸收(Absorb)魔法比伤害(Damage)魔法贵很多关于吸收(Absorb)魔法的效果对于施法者而言,2.吸收,吸附,吸引：absolutezero绝对零度|absorb吸收,吸附,吸引|absorbability吸收能力,吸附能力,吸收性四、例句Drysandabsorbswater.干沙吸收水份。Didyouabsorbeverythingtheprofessorsaid?教授说的你全部理解了吗?Hisbusinessabsorbshim.他的业务使他全神贯注。Largenationsshouldn"tabsorbsmallerones.大国不应当吞并小国。Shewon"tbeabletoabsorbanotherheavyblow.她无力承受再一次沉重的打击。五、词汇搭配用作动词(v.)～+名词absorbammoniainwater用水吸收氨absorbanothercountry吞并另一个国家absorbasmallcompany合并一个小公司absorbasmallstate吞并一个小国家absorbasmuchinformationaspossible尽可能多地吸收信息absorbattention吸引注意力absorbcarbondioxide吸收二氧化碳absorbenergy吸收能量absorbessenceanddiscarddross吸取精华,剔除糟粕absorbessenceandrejectdross吸取精华,剔除糟粕absorbexperience吸取经验absorbfoods吸收食物absorbgas吸气absorbheat吸热absorbink吸墨水absorbinterest吸引兴趣absorbknowledge掌握知识absorblight吸收光absorbloss承担亏损absorbmillionsofimmigrants吸收并同化数以百万计的移民absorbmoisture吸收潮气absorbnewsubscribers吸收新订户absorbnoise吸收噪音absorbnutrition吸收营养absorbsb"sattention吸引某人的注意力absorbshares吸收股份absorbshock减震absorbsound吸收声音absorbsunlight吸收阳光absorbtherain吸收雨水absorbwater吸水absorbwhatisuseful吸收有用的东西absorbwhatisworthwhile吸收有价值的东西absorbworkload承担工作量～+副词absorbcompletely完全吸收absorbimmediately立即吸收absorbincessantly持续不断地吸收absorbintelligently明智地吸收absorbpartially部分吸收absorbpassively消极地吸收absorbproperly适当地吸收absorbquickly迅速吸收absorbrapidly迅速吸收absorbshortly立即吸收absorbslowly慢慢地吸收absorbtotally全部吸收absorbutterly完全吸收absorbwholly完全吸收～+介词absorbfrom从?吸收absorbinto把?吞〔并〕入?absorbsthfrom从?吸收beabsorbedby全神贯注在?上,专心于beabsorbedbytheproblem全神贯注于这个问题上beabsorbedin全神贯注在?上,专心于beabsorbedinstudy埋头学习beabsorbedinthework埋头工作beabsorbedintheexperiment专心于实验beabsorbedinthoughts陷于沉思beabsorbedin(reading)abook专心读书beabsorbedwith全神贯注在?上,专心于beabsorbedwiththeproblem全神贯注于这个问题上六、经典引文TheconqueredChinese..havealreadybeguntoabsorbtheirconquerors.出自：E.OTherealisticnovelreachedouttoabsorbeverynewqualityandlocusofexperience.出自：G.Steiner七、词语用法v.(动词)absorb的基本意思是“吸收”,可指吸收液体、气体、光、热、能等,也指吸收抽象的知识、文化、经验、教训、思想、方法等,含有“以此丰富了吸收者”之意,并暗示“吸收”的渐进性和彻底性。absorb作“吞并;并入”解时指把一个较小的国家、团体或组织变成一个较大的国家、团体或组织的一部分,被吞并者失去了自己原有的个性或特征。absorb作“吸收”解时主语可以是人,也可以是物,宾语则是无生命的事或物;作“吞并”解时主语和宾语都是国家、团体或组织;作“使全神贯注”解时主语是人、事或物,宾语是人或人的精力、兴趣等;作“减轻?的作用”解时主要用于打击、碰撞等;作“耗费,耗去”解时主要用于大量的金钱、时间等;作“承受;承担,对付”解时主要用于变化、结果、费用等。absorb作“吸收”“吞并”“使全神贯注”解时常用于被动结构。beabsorbed作“聚精会神地干某事”解时应接“in+动名词”,不能接动词不定式。absorb的相关近义词soakup、suckup、assimilate、digest、arrest、engage、engross、enwrap、fascinate、fix、immerse、occupy、preoccupy、eatup、takeup、deadenabsorb的相关反义词castoff、castout、disperse、exude、disperse、giveout、impart、distractabsorb的相关临近词absorbed、absolve、absorber、absorben、absorbar、absorber、absorbate、absorbing、absorbite、absorbant、absorbset、absorbency点此查看更多关于absorb的详细信息

逗号前的部分做he的定语，而D是名词性成分，不能作定语。

interesting的同义词有:absorbing、affecting、alluring、amusing、arresting、attractive、beautiful、captivating、charismatic、compelling、curious、delightful、elegant、enchanting、engaging、engrossing、entertaining、enthralling、entrancing、exceptional、exotic、fascinatingexciting的同义词有：agitative、animating、appealing、arousing、arresting、astonishing、bracing、breathtaking、commoving、dangerous、dramatic、electrifying、exhilarant、far out、fine、flashy、hectic、impelling、impressive、neat、overpowering、overwhelming、provocative、racy、rousing、sensational、showy、扩展资料：interesting和interested的区别1.interesting用法：指人或物时,表示具有能唤起某人心理或情感方面兴趣的能力,而不表示兴趣的程度或原因; 指书、戏剧、影视等时,则表示具有较强的娱乐性,而且能使人消愁解闷。例句：There is an interesting program on television tonight.今天晚上有一个有趣的电视节目。2.interested用法：在句中可用作定语、表语或宾语补足语。例句：He is very interested in what are called popular songs.他对所谓的流行歌曲很感兴趣。

Chaque jour est un jour férié lequel comme des vacances, quand les vacances viennent, ils sont marchandé comme des interruptions forcées dans une vocation absorbant.

求加

while 引导伴随状语，句中的两个动词absorbed 和 heard 同步进行，所以时态应相同。补充：已知heard用过去，所以absorb改用过去时态。

charming

造纸行业专业英语名词 　　导语：造纸是古代中国劳动人民的重要发明。下面是我收集整理的造纸行业专业英语名词，欢迎参考! 　　abrasive paper 砂纸 　　abrasive base paper 砂纸原纸 　　absorbing paper 吸水纸;吸收性纸 　　account book paper 帐簿纸 　　accounting machine paper 计算机用纸 　　acid-free paper 无酸纸 　　acid-proof paper 耐酸纸 　　acid resistant paper 耐酸纸 　　acoustic paper 隔音纸 　　actinometer paper 溴化银印相纸 　　active paper 吸湿纸 　　adding machine paper 计算机用纸 　　address label paper 地址标签纸 　　adhesive paper 胶粘纸 　　advertising paper 广告纸，招贴纸 　　agate paper 仿大理石纸 　　agate marble paper 仿玛瑙大理五石纹纸 　　age resistant paper 耐老化纸 　　air paper 航空信纸 　　air-dried paper 风干纸 　　air-filtration paper 空气滤纸 　　air-knife coated paper 气刀涂布纸 　　air-mail paper 航空信纸 　　air-proof paper 不透气纸 　　air-tight paper 气密纸 　　alabaster paper 名片纸 　　alabaster paper 薄纸 　　albumenized paper 蛋白胶纸，蛋白纸 　　albumin paper 蛋白胶纸 　　aligning paper 地图纸 　　alkali-proof paper 耐碱纸 　　all rag paper 全棉纤维纸 　　all-wood paper 全木浆纸 　　allogator imitation paper 仿鳄皮纸 　　alpha printing paper 西班牙草浆印刷纸 　　alpha-writing paper 西班牙草浆书写纸 　　aluminum paper 铝纸 　　aluminum-castling paper 铝衬纸 　　aluminum-coated paper 铝涂布纸 　　aluminum-dusted paper 铝粉纸 　　aluminum-foil backing paper 铝箔衬纸 　　aluminum diaphragm paper 石棉隔膜纸 　　aluminum (electrical)insulating paper 石棉(电)绝缘纸 　　aluminum wall paper 石棉壁纸 　　aseptic paper 消毒纸,防腐纸 　　ash less paper 无灰纸 　　ash filter paper 无灰滤纸 　　aluminum laminated paper 铝箔夹层纸 　　amber laid paper 琥柏条纹纸 　　ammunition paper 弹筒纸 　　amplitude response recording paper 频率感应记录纸 　　analytical filter paper 分析化学用滤纸 　　angle paper 斜面纸 　　angle-cut yarer 斜截面纸 　　angular paper 斜角纸 　　animal tub-sized paper 动物胶表面施胶纸 　　anti-acid paper 耐酸纸，抗酸纸 　　anti-acid manila paper 耐酸马尼拉纸 　　anti-corrosion paper 防蚀纸 　　anti-falsification paper 仿伪造纸 　　anti-fungicide paper 防霉纸 　　anti-fusion paper 服装剪裁用纸 　　anti-tarnish paper 防锈纸 　　anti-rust base paper 防锈原纸 　　anti-tarnish paper 防锈纸 　　antique paper 低光泽纸，仿古纸 　　antique book paper 仿古书籍纸 　　antique-bristol paper 仿古整饰光泽厚纸 　　antique-cover paper 仿古整饰封面纸 　　antique-eggshell paper 粗糙表面仿白纸粗糙表面仿白纸 　　antique-glazed paper 低光泽纸 　　antique-printing paper 仿古印刷纸,低光泽印刷纸 　　anti-rust paper 防锈纸 　　antiseptic paper 杀菌纸 　　antitarnish paper 保光泽纸 　　apricot paper 粉红色水果包装纸 　　aquare(le) paper 水彩图画纸，水彩画纸 　　archival paper 档案纸 　　armature paper 绝缘纸 　　aromatic paper 香料纸 　　arsenical paper 含砷纸 　　art paper 美术纸，铜版纸，涂料纸 　　art-cover paper 美术装饰纸 　　art-drawing paper 水彩例纸 　　art-poster paper 美术广告纸;美工宣传纸 　　articulating paper 牙科用纸 　　artificial leather paper 人造革纸 　　artificial parchment paper 仿羊皮纸 　　asbestos paper 石棉纸 　　asbestos base paper 钡地原纸，照相原纸 　　asphalt paper 防潮纸,沥青纸，柏油纸 　　asphalt base paper 沥青原纸 　　asphalt coated paper 沥青涂布纸 　　asphalt laminated paper 沥青层合纸 　　asphalt saturated paper 防潮纸,沥青纸 　　asphalt moisture proof paper 防潮纸,沥青纸 　　asphalt sheathing paper 涂布防潮纸,沥青涂布纸 　　asphalting paper 防潮纸，沥青纸 　　asthma paper 防喘纸 　　atlas paper 地图纸，绘图纸，印图纸 　　autochion printing paper 彩色印刷纸 　　auto copy paper 压感复写纸 　　autograph paper 纪念册纸 　　autographic register paper 自动(划线)记录纸 　　autographic transfer paper 复印纸 　　automobile-bag paper 汽车袋用纸 　　automobile tire roll paper 轮胎包装纸 　　autotype paper 复制纸，影印纸 　　avenue paper 食品包装纸 　　azure laid(writing) paper 蓝条纹书写纸 　　A printing A级印刷纸(含漂白磨木浆) 　　absolute humidity 绝对湿度 　　absolute temperature 绝对温度 　　absorbency of paper 纸张吸收性能 　　absorbent 吸收性的，吸收剂 　　absorbent paper 吸水纸，易吸墨的`印刷纸 　　addition agent 添加剂 　　additional agent 添加剂 　　autotype pigment paper 碳素纸 　　autogtaphic printing paper 转写纸 　　autographic stencil paper 誊写版蜡纸 　　articulating paper 双面复写纸 　　artificial parchment 仿硫酸纸 　　artist"s illustration board 绘图用厚纸 　　ash content 灰分纸张 　　Ashcroft tester 纸张耐破裂度测试仪 　　ashless filter paper 无灰滤纸 　　art board 涂料板纸 　　art vellum 仿羊皮纸 　　antitarnish paper 防锈纸 　　antiquarian 纸张尺寸 　　antifalsification paper 防伪造纸 　　animal parchment 羊皮纸 　　anopisthographic block book 单面印刷的木版纸 　　A flute A级瓦楞纸波形数 　　abaca(Musa texilis) 马尼拉麻，蕉麻 　　abele(Populus alba) 银白杨 　　abienol 松香醇 　　abies 冷杉属 　　abietate 松香酸酯 　　abieteae(Abietoideae) 冷杉(亚科)，松亚科 　　abietene 松香烯 　　abietic acid 松香酸 　　abrader 研磨机 　　abrading machine 研磨机 　　abrasion 磨损，磨蚀 　　abrasion resistance 抗磨性能 　　abrasion test 耐磨试验 　　abrasion t3ester 耐磨试验机 　　abrasive 磨损的，磨蚀的 　　abrasive acrion 磨蚀作用 　　abrasive fiber 砂纸原纸用纤维 　　abrasive grain 磨(料)粒(度) 　　abrasive machine 研磨机 　　abrasive resistance 抗磨性能 　　abrasive tester 耐磨试验机 　　abrasiveness 磨蚀 　　absolute alcohol 无水酒精 　　absolute alcohol dry 绝干 　　absolute alcohol humidity 绝对湿度 　　absolute alcohol temperature 绝对温度 　　absolute unit 绝对单位 　　absorb 吸收 　　absorbability 吸收性能 　　absorbed water 吸收水 　　absorbency 吸收能力;吸收本领 　　absorbent 吸收剂 　　absorbent felt 吸水毛毯 　　absorber 吸收器，吸收剂，减震器 　　absorbing capacity 吸收能力 　　absorbing capacity column 吸收塔 　　absorbing capacity pad 防震垫 　　absorbing capacity power 吸收能力 　　absorbing capacity quality 吸收性能;吸收能力 　　absorbing capacity tower 吸收塔 　　absorption 吸收作用 　　absorption ability 吸收能力 　　absorption band 吸收光带 　　absorption coefficient 吸收系数 　　absorption measurement 吸收测定 　　absorption rate 吸收率 　　absorption spwctrum 吸收光谱 　　absorption tester 吸收试验仪 　　absorption tower 吸收塔 　　absorptive capacity 吸收能力 　　absorptivity 吸收能力，吸收率 　　acacia (Acacia) 金合欢(属) 　　acacia false (Robinia psendon cacia L.) 刺槐;洋槐 　　acacia gum 金合欢胶 　　accelerant 催速剂，促进剂，加速剂 　　accelerated ageing 加速老化 　　accelerated cement 速凝水泥 　　accelerated oxidation 加速氧化 　　accelerated weathering 人工加速风干 　　accelerating agent 催速剂，促进剂 　　accelerator 加速器，促进剂 　　acceptability 合格率 　　acceptable fiber 合格纤维 　　accepted chips 合格木片 　　accepted chips product 合格产品 　　accepted chips stock 合格浆料 　　acceptance sampling system 合格率抽样系统 　　acceptance sampling system test 合格率检查 　　accepts 合格品;良浆 　　access time 存取时间，选取时间，信息发送时间 　　accessibility 可及度 　　accessory 附件;零件 　　a.c. commutator motor 整流式交流电动机 　　accident prevention 技术保安措施 　　accidental error 偶(然误)差 　　accordion fold 手风琴式折纸法 　　accumulation 累积，蓄积，储积，堆积 　　accumulator 储存槽，回收槽;蓄电池;污热水槽 　　accumulator acid (亚硫酸盐制浆)回收酸 　　accumulator relief 储存槽排气，回收槽排气 　　accumulator tank 储存槽，回收槽，污热水槽 　　accuracy 准确(度，性);精密(度，性) 　　acer 枫树，槭树 　　acetal 乙缩醛，乙醛缩二乙醇 　　acetaldehyde 乙醛 　　acetate 醋酸盐;醋酸酯;醋酸根(或基) 　　acetate fiber 醋酸纤维 　　acetate film 醋酸盐胶片 　　acetate rayon 醋酸人造丝 　　acetic acid 醋酸 　　acetic acid anhydride 醋(酸水)解 　　acetone 丙酮 　　acetonitrile 乙腈 　　aceto-veratrone 乙酰藜芦酮 　　acetyl 乙酰(基) 　　acetyl cellulose 醋酸纤维素 　　acetyl vanilloyl 乙酰基香草酰 　　acetylate 乙酰化，乙酰化产物 　　acetylation 乙酰化(作用) 　　achromatic 消色的，消色差的 　　acid accumulator (酸液)回收锅(或槽) 　　acid accumulator alizarin dye 茜素染料，1，2-二羟基蒽醌染料 　　acid accumulator alum 酸性明矾 　　acid accumulator bath 酸溶;脱酸槽 　　acid accumulator bleaching 酸性漂白 　　acid accumulator chloride 酸性氯化物 　　acid accumulator circulation 酸液循环 　　acid accumulator composition 酸液组成 　　acid accumulator dye(stuff) 酸性染料 　　acid accumulator extract 酸抽提 　　acid accumulator fastness 耐酸度 　　acid accumulator filter 滤酸器 　　acid accumulator fortitying system 酸液强化系统 　　acid accumulator free 无酸的，脱酸的，不含酸的 　　acid accumulator group 酸根(或基) 　　acid accumulator halide 酸性卤化物 　　acid accumulator insoluble lignin 酸不溶木素 　　acid accumulator lignin 酸木素 　　acid accumulator line 酸液管道 　　acid accumulator liquor 酸液 　　acid accumulator maker 制酸工 　　acid accumulator making 制酸 　　acid accumulator number 酸值 　　acid accumulator penetration 酸液渗透，酸液浸透 　　acid accumulator plant 制酸车间 　　acid accumulator preheater 酸液预热器 　　acid accumulator press (羊皮纸机用)压酸辊 　　acid accumulator proof enamel 防酸搪瓷 　　acid accumulator prmp 酸泵 　　acid accumulator recovery plant 酸液回收车间 　　acid accumulator reduction 酸性还原 　　acid accumulator resistance 耐酸性能，耐酸强度 　　acid accumulator resistant 耐酸合金 　　acid accumulator tesistant brick 耐酸砖 　　acid accumulator tesisting bronze 耐酸铜 　　acid accumulator resisting felt 耐酸毛毯 　　acid accumulator resisting mortar 耐酸灰泥 　　acid accumulator resisting paint 耐酸油漆 　　acid accumulator resisting steel 耐酸铜 　　acid accumulator resisting tile 耐酸砖 　　acid accumulator rosin size 酸性松香胶 　　acid accumulator settling basin 酸液澄清槽 　　acid accumulator salt 酸式盐 　　acid accumulator size 酸性施胶剂 　　acid accumulator soluble 酸溶(性) 　　acid accumulator soluble lignin 酸溶性木素 　　acid accumulator souring 酸处理 　　acid accumulator stable size 酸稳性施胶剂 　　acid accumulator storage 贮酸槽 　　acid accumulator strength 酸液浓度 　　acid accumulator sulfite 酸性亚硫酸盐 　　acid accumulator tank 酸槽 　　acid accumulator tower 制酸塔，酸塔 　　acid accumulator trap 分酸器 ;

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7。尽管广泛的coverge在大众媒体上的雨林的破坏形式的信息是可得到的,关于儿童的想法。 8。这些想法会被孩子们通过吸收流行媒体的观点。 9。然而,在相同的时间为这种新认识的医疗资源是有限的,觉沉没的相反的国王在西方社会中。

be absorbed in ... 专心于u22ef。当人做主语时，看起来都是被动。这里考察的的确是非谓语动词，they 是指人的词，应该用过去分词形式作状语。

D 考查过去分词做主语补足语的用法，find sb done结构的被动是sb be found done，因为 sb be absorbed in专注于，做主语补足语也是过去分词做补足语。句意是：这个男孩经常被发现专注的看书。选D。

田 坤 李振春 黄建平 李 娜 孔 雪 刘玉金（中国石油大学（华东）地球科学与技术学院，山东青岛 266555）基金项目：国家973课题（编号2011CB202402），石油大学创新基金（编号27R1001046A）及（Y090104）作者简介：田坤，男，在读博士研究生，现从事地震波正演模拟研究。Email：tiankunwudi＠163.com。摘 要：利用波动方程进行数值模拟时，由于介质的计算范围肯定是有限的，这样就会人为地造成 计算边界，不可避免地产生边界反射，因此需要使用吸收边界条件使入射到边界的能量被吸收掉，减小 边界反射所带来的影响。PML吸收层技术已经被证明是非常有效的边界吸收技术，对体波和面波的吸收 都具有非常好的效果，已经被广泛应用于弹性波的数值模拟中。但是在大角度入射即掠射的情况下传统 的PML技术还是存在一定的问题，掠射情况下衰减不够，反射系数比较大，离散后会产生比较严重的 假反射，降低吸收效果，对真实波场产生比较严重的影响，这种影响随入射角、偏移距的增加而增大，而且会对实际应用中的成像、反演等其他处理产生不利影响。而掠射是普遍存在的，比如薄片区域、震 源位置接近研究区域边缘、大偏移距接收等等。本文基于一阶速度-应力方程，提出了一种卷积完全匹 配层（CPML）技术，并采用交错网格有限差分方法对其进行了实现，结果表明CPML技术有效改善了 掠射情况下的吸收效果，尤其是对于散射场等弱能量波场，相对来说效果更是明显。并且在实现过程中 不用分裂变量，应用更加方便简单，易于编程实现，计算卷积时采用递推的形式，不会增加计算量，存 储量也没有太大的变化。关键词：PML；吸收边界条件；弹性波；数值模拟；卷积完全匹配层技术An Improved Perfectly Matched Layer Absorbing Boundary Condition for the Carbonate Karst ReservoirTian Kun，Li Zhenchun，Huang Jianping，Li Na，Kong Xue，Liu Yujin（School of Geoscience，China University of Petroleum（East China），Qingdao 266555，China）Abstract：When we simulate from wave equation，it"s can cause computing bounds artificially and the reflections from artificial boundaries inevitably，because the calculation range is limited so it need absorbing boundary conditions to make the energy that incidenting on the bound is absorbed and minimal the impact caused by boundary reflections.The perfectly matched layer（PML）absorbing boundary condition has proven to be a very efficient method for the numerical forward modeling of elastic wave equation to absorb both body waves and surface waves.But at grazing incidence the classical discrete PML method still exist some problems，that is the attenuation is not enough，the reflection coefficient is big to some extent，these canproduce severe spurious reflection after dispersion and reduce the effect to absorb，then cause seriously influences to the real field and these influences are growing with increasing incident angle and offset，besides，these can negatively affect the imaging and inversion and other treatment in practical application.But grazing incidence is natural，for instance in the case of very thin mesh slices，as well as sources located close to the edge of the mesh，or in the case of receivers located at very large offset.In this paper，we present an improved PML absorbing boundary condition at grazing incidence which is called convolution PML（CPML）based on the first-order velocity-stress partial differential wave equation.And it is implemented by a staggered grids finite-difference method.The results show that the CPML technique canobtain a better result in the case of grazing incidence，especially for scattering field and such like this weak reflection wave field.And its implementation is convenient and easy to be used and programmed because of the un-split variable.The cost of the calculation is not increase because of the recursion when convolution is computed.The memory storage is also similar to that of the classical PMLKey words：PML；absorbing boundary condition；elastic wave；Forward modeling；CPML引言由于计算能力的快速发展，在过去几十年里对地震波在复杂介质中传播的数值模拟方法的研究也越 来越广泛和深入。其中应用最广泛的是有限差分法［1～3］，而在有限区域的有限差分正演模拟中，无论是 求解麦克斯韦电磁波方程组，还是求解弹性波动力学方程组，Bérenger（1994）提出的完全匹配层（perfectly matched layer，PML）吸收边界条件是最有效的吸收边界条件［4］。完全匹配层中的波动方程可 以看做是常规的波动方程的推广，波在其中传播时相位改变而振幅随指数衰减；PML和主研究区域弹 性参数相同而衰减系数不同，波阻抗完全匹配，理论上不会发生反射。Chew and Weedon（1994）引入 复数伸展坐标系对PML吸收边界条件进行公式化［5］；Rappapport（1995）证明了PML介质等价于在吸 收边界区域引入各向异性介质［6］；大量研究［5，7］表明，PML吸收边界条件比指数衰减吸收边界条件［8，9］、 廖氏吸收边界条件［10］、Higdon吸收边界条件［11］和旁轴近似吸收边界条件［12］等具有更优越的吸收性能。Chen et al.（1997）和Wang and Oristaglio（2000）将PML吸收边界条件成功应用到电磁波方程组的求 解中［7，13］。近年来，PML吸收边界条件也被应用到声波和弹性波的有限差分正演模拟中［13～16］。另外，Teixeir and Chew（1999）和Chew and Liu（1996）在柱坐标系和球坐标系中实现了PML吸收边界 条件［17，18］。但是传统的PML也存在一定的缺陷，离散后的PML层反射系数不严格为0，尤其在大入射角 的情况下更为严重，在这种情况下，相当一部分能量以反射波的形式被送回到主研究区域，而大 入射角的情况是普遍存在的，比如薄片区域、震源位置接近研究区域边缘、大偏移距接收等等。为了克服这个问题，一种修改复坐标变换以改进离散后大入射角吸收效果的PML方法被提了出来 并被应用到麦克斯韦方程组的求解中（Roden and Gedney，2000）并被命名为卷积完全匹配层（CPML）［19］。本文采用这种方法来求解弹性波方程，结果表明CPML技术有效改善了掠射的吸收 效果，并且在实现过程中不用分裂变量，应用更加方便简单，计算卷积时采用递推的形式，不会 增加计算量，存储量也没有太大的变化。1 CPML基本原理PML技术本质上是将波动方程在PML层内进行复坐标变换，对于变换后的坐标，方程及其解的形 式是不变的，但是对于原坐标解是衰减的。传统的PML中频率域坐标变换为（以x为例）：国际非常规油气勘探开发（青岛）大会论文集在CPML中对（3）式进行了扩展，使其形式更一般化：国际非常规油气勘探开发（青岛）大会论文集其中αx≥0，κx≥1，可以看出传统PML是CPML在αx＝0，κx＝1情况下的特例。将坐标变换关系变换回时域，用 表示1/sx的傅里叶反变换，可以得到国际非常规油气勘探开发（青岛）大会论文集根据（4）式可得国际非常规油气勘探开发（青岛）大会论文集δ与1和e-atH（t）与1/（a＋iω）是傅里叶变换对，所以国际非常规油气勘探开发（青岛）大会论文集这样CPML中坐标变换关系就分为两部分，其中第一部分容易计算，只要计算空间偏导除以系数κ 就可以了，最主要的是计算第二部分的卷积。在离散的交错网格下将n时刻的卷积写成国际非常规油气勘探开发（青岛）大会论文集交错网格的情况下可以写为国际非常规油气勘探开发（青岛）大会论文集其中国际非常规油气勘探开发（青岛）大会论文集式中：国际非常规油气勘探开发（青岛）大会论文集因为（12）式是简单的指数形式，所以可以把（11）式写成递推的形式：国际非常规油气勘探开发（青岛）大会论文集这样在主研究区域进行正常计算，在PML层内通过下面的关系进行坐标变换后的计算就可以了：国际非常规油气勘探开发（青岛）大会论文集其中Ψx可以通过（13）式的递推得到。这就是CPML的基本原理，可以很容易地推广到y，z方向。角上的情形与传统的PML类似，所有 方向同时考虑就可以了。2 正演模拟计算与对比为了验证CPML的有效性与优越性，下面对各向同性介质进行了试算，并与传统的PML的计算结 果进行了对比。图1是层状介质模型，采样点为301×301，网格间距5m×5m，上层纵横波速度分别为 3000m/s，1600m/s，下层纵横波速度分别为3300m/s，1900m/s，密度均为2800kg/m3，震源坐标（150，5），道间距5m，采样率0.5ms，采样时间1.5s，图2和图3分别是主频为20Hz的z分量炮记录 和波场快照对比，可以清楚地看到PML在上界面产生了比较强的反射，而且对炮记录有所影响，而 CPML的效果要更好一些。图4和图5分别是主频为30Hz的z分量炮记录和波场快照对比，也可以看出CPML比PML的 吸收效果要更好一些。图6是3个单道的波形对比图，单道1、2、3坐标分别是（201，5），（251，5），（301，5），图6左侧是0～1.2s的波形对比，右侧是0.3～1.2s的波形对比，也可以 看出CPML要比PML效果好，而且随着偏移距增大，入射角增加，对比越明显，传统的PML中的 反射影响越严重。图1 层状介质模型图2 主频为20Hz的炮记录对比图3 主频为20Hz的0.3s波场快照（上）及局部放大图（下）对比图4 主频为30Hz的炮记录对比图7是含散射体介质模型，在（225，15）处有一散射体，散射体纵横波速度分别为2700m/s，1300m/s，其他参数与前相同。图8和图9分别是主频为30Hz的z分量炮记录和波场快照对比，可以看 出PML的虚假反射对散射场有相当的影响，这会对实际应用中的成像、反演等其他处理产生不利影响。图5 主频为30Hz的0.3s波场快照（上）及局部放大图（下）对比3 结论本文基于不分裂的卷积方法在交错网格有限差分情形下对传统的PML技术进行了一般化扩展，推 导了CPML的时域坐标变换关系的递推公式，并通过模型试算进行了对比分析，得到以下几点结论： (1)传统的PML在离散后反射系数不为0，尤其在大入射角、大偏移距的情况下会产生很强的假反射，降低吸收效果，对真实波场产生比较严重地影响，这种影响随入射角、偏移距的增加而增大；(2)改进 后的CPML技术能够增强掠射情况的波场衰减，降低反射系数，有效改善匹配层的吸收效果；(3)对于 含散射体的复杂介质模型，传统的PML也会产生假反射，并更加严重地影响散射场等弱能量波场，而 且会对实际应用中的偏移、反演等处理产生不利影响，而CPML技术同样可以改善吸收效果，降低不利 影响；(4)CPML技术采用不分裂变量的卷积方法进行计算，并通过递推来计算卷积，使其存储量和计算 量与传统PML相比都没有太大变化，不会增加计算成本。本文的CPML技术能够有效改善掠射的吸收效果，而且不增加计算成本，这对很多如薄片区域、震 源接近研究区域边缘、大偏移距接收等实际情况有很好的应用前景。对于偏移成像等处理中的吸收边界 条件，这也是一种比较好的选择。但是CPML没有改变传统的PML的基本思想，所以它还是存在一些 问题，比如对于一些各向异性介质有固有的不稳定性、离散后匹配层反射系数不严格为零等。本文在匹 配层外围采用的是Dirichlet边界条件，后续研究中可以将其替换为旁轴吸收边界条件以进一步提高离散 后的吸收效果，另外对于二阶位移波动方程的CPML吸收边界条件也有待进一步研究。CPML技术以及 后续相关方法的进一步研究，将有利于西部碳酸盐岩探区复杂近地表速度模型下的正演模拟，尤其是对 碳酸盐岩探区近地表散射波机理认识的研究，可为将来碳酸盐岩探区勘探开发服务。图6 不同单道的CPML和PML波形对比图图7 含散射体介质模型图8 含散射体模型的z分量炮记录对比图9 含散射体模型的z分量0.3s波场快照（上）及局部放大图（下）对比参考文献［1］Alterman Z and Karal F C.Propagation of elastic waves in layered media by finite difference methods.Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America，1968，58：367-398.［2］Madariaga，R..Dynamics of an expanding circular fault.Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America，1976，65： 163-182.［3］Virieux，J.P-SV wave propagation in heterogeneous media：velocity-stress finite-difference method.Geophysics，1986，51： 889-901.［4］Bérenger，J.P .A perfectly matched layer for the absorption of electromagnetic waves.Journal of Computational Physics，1994，114：185-200.［5］Chew W.C.，and W.H.Weedon.A 3-D perfectly matched medium from modified Maxwell"s equations with stretched coordinates.Microwave and Optical Technology Letters，1994，7：599-604.［6］Rappaport，C.M..Perfectly matched absorbing boundary conditions based on anisotropic lossy mapping of space.IEEE Microwave Guided Wave Lett.，1995，5：90-92.［7］Chen，Y.H.，Chew，W.C.，Oristaglio，M.L..Application of perfectly matched layers to the transient modeling of subsurface EM problems.Geophysics，1997，62：1730-1736.［8］Marfurt，K.J..Accuracy of finite-difference and finite-element modeling of the scalar and elastic wave equations.Geophysics，1984，49：533-549.［9］Shin，C..Sponge boundary condition for frequency domain modeling.Geophysics，1995，60：1870-1874.［10］Liao，Z.P.，Wong，H.L.，Yang，B.P.，et al..A transmitting boundary for transient wave analysis.Scientia Sinica，1984，27（10）：1063-1076.［11］Higdon，R.L.Absorbing boundary condition for elastic waves.Geophysics，1991，56：231-241.［12］Engquist，B.，Majda，A..Absorbing boundary conditions for the numerical simulation of waves.Mathematics of Computation，1977，31（9）：629-651.［13］Wang，T.，Oristaglio，M.L.3D simulation of GPR surveys over pipes in dispersive soils.Geophysics，2000，65：1560- 1568.［14］Liu，Q.H.，Tao，J.P..The perfectly matched layer for acoustic waves in absorptive media.Acoust.Soc.Am.，1997，102：2072-2082.［15］Zeng，Y.，He，J.，Liu，Q.H..The application of the perfectly matched layer in numerical modeling of wave propagation in poroelastic media.Geophysics，2001，66：1258-1266.［16］Imhof，M.G..Calculating the seismic effect of 3D underground structures and topography with the finite-difference method.72nd Internat.Mtg.，Soc.Expl.Geophys.，Expanded Abstracts，2002：1939-1942.［17］Teixeira，F.L.，Chew，W.C..On causality and dynamic stability of perfectly matched layers for FDTD simulations.IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques，1999，47：775-785.［18］Chew，W.C.，Liu，Q.H..Perfectly matched layers for elastodynamics：A new absorbing boundary condition.Journal of Computational Acoustics，1996，4：341-359.［19］Roden，J.A.，and S.D.Gedney.Convolution PML（CPML）：An efficient FDTD implementation of the CFS-PML for arbitrary media.Microwave and Optical Technology Letters，2000，27：334-339.

植物共有六大器官：根、茎、叶、花、果实、种子。1、根是植物的营养器官，通常位于地表下面，负责吸收土壤里面的水分及溶解其中的离子，并且具有支持、贮存合成有机物质的作用。There are six organs in the plant: roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds. 1. The root is the vegetative organ of the plant. It is usually located under the surface of the earth and is responsible for absorbing the water in the soil and dissolving the ions therein, and it has the function of supporting and storing synthetic organic substances.

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In recent years the IVD industry has increased enormously its work to develop membrane-based lateral-flow tests. Such tests have found applications in both clinical and nonclinical fields. A review of the wide range of applications for these devices has been reported in an earlier article.1 While the concept of membrane-based lateral-flow immunoassay tests is quite simple, how well such tests perform depends on a number of critical parameters. Earlier articles in IVD Technology have discussed the importance of the quality of the gold conjugate and the way that capture proteins bind to membranes.1u2013 3 This article explores the possible causes of poor test performance that result in the generation of false-positive and false-negative signals, and provides a systematic approach to overcoming such problems and optimizing test performance. While this article specifically describes such problems with specific reference to gold-based lateral-flow tests, very similar problems are also found in latex-based tests. In order to avoid repetition, it is assumed that the reader is already familiar with the mechanics of a lateral-flow test and with the basic properties of the lateral-flow test components—specifically the antibodies, gold conjugate, membrane, conjugate release pad, and sample and absorbing pads—as well as the standard chemical components that are used to treat the various papers and membranes used in the test. For the reader unfamiliar with these concepts, they have been described in detail elsewhere.1 Symptoms of False-Positive and False-Negative ResultsA false-positive result is the appearance of a colored line on the test strip (red for gold conjugates) in the absence of analyte in the sample. The line may appear early in the test or after a significant time delay. A false-negative result is the absence of a visible line at the capture antibody (for a sandwich assay) in the presence of a detectable positive sample. Either type of false signal may occur with a wide variety of samples, or may arise only with certain types or sources of sample. The problem may appear in every test strip from a single batch of devices, or it may only occur in a random number of strips within a sample. The latter situation demonstrates the importance of performing large trials of test strips at each stage of development before moving on to the next stage toward full manufacture. Even at the level of full manufacture, it may be found that occasional false-positive results are obtained from standard negative samples and vice versa. Because of the enormous cost of batch failure, it is therefore mandatory to test thoroughly for, and understand the causes of, false-positive and false-negative results well before reaching large-volume production. False-positive and false-negative signals may have many different causes. Such signals may be caused by either the sample or by the poor or inadequate design and manufacture of the test itself. The potential for generating false signals should be eliminated during the course of a test"s development through a thorough, iterative trial of large numbers of test devices at each stage of development. The cause of a false-positive or false-negative result can sometimes be determined from the visual appearance of the signal, or of the flow characteristics leading to the signal, as the test is performed. However, the reason a false signal has arisen will not always be evident. Only experience, a systematic and scientific approach, and a detailed troubleshooting schedule can eliminate such signals and prevent them from happening. Before adjusting any particular parameter, the test developer should be thoroughly familiar with what makes a test work reliably and what can cause it to go wrong. It is not necessary to adopt an empirical approach if a full understanding of the mechanics of a lateral-flow test has been achieved. A detailed description of the workings of a membrane-based lateral-flow test and a detailed troubleshooting manual for false-positive and false-negative results is outside the scope of this short article.4 Instead, this article summarizes typical symptoms and describes a methodological approach for determining the cause of the problem. Suggested causes and cures are also provided. Basic Causes of False PositivesMost causes of false-positive signals arise for the very same reasons that proteins bind specifically to gold particles during a routine conjugation procedure. During such a conjugation, proteins are adsorbed onto the surface of the gold by three major forces (see Figure 1).Figure 1. Binding forces between an anitbody and a gold particle.Charge Attraction. Gold particles are negatively charged because of a layer of negative ions adsorbed onto their surfaces from the reducer (often citrate) used to convert the gold salt into gold colloid. This negative charge will attract positively charged proteins and bring them close enough to the surface for the binding forces to take effect. Proteins that are more acidic than their isoionic point will be positively charged and are thus likely to be strongly attracted to the gold surface. Regions of the protein particularly rich in lysine or arginine will be strongly positively charged at pH values lower than the pH of lysine (pH 10.4) and arginine (pH 12.5). Hydrophobic Binding. Once the proteins are close enough, (that is, closer than approximately 1 nm), any hydrophobic areas of the protein will be more likely to make contact with and bind to the hydrophobic gold surface. Any protein rich in apolar amino acids (e.g., tryptophan, valine, leucine, isoleucine, or phenylalanine) will thus be strongly bound to the gold surface. Dative Bonding. Dative bonding provides the strongest binding of all. Proteins with a high content of sulphur-containing amino acid groups (due to cysteine and methionine residues) will bind strongly to the surface of gold. This is because of the attraction between gold atoms (having conductive electrons) and sulphur atoms (having valence electrons). While these three types of binding forces work in favor of the production of stable gold conjugates, they also work against the performance of the assay system by creating false-positive signals as described below. Before adopting a systematic approach to diagnosing and curing false-positive signals, it is important to be aware of most, if not all, of the possible reasons for such signals. Figure 2 schematically illustrates the major areas of concern, while the descriptions below summarize the most common causes. However, these sources are not at all exhaustive. Generally, all possible causes of false signals will be connected with either the gold conjugate, the capture antibody, the membrane, the added chemicals, or the sample. By understanding these potential causes, a speedy diagnosis can be made from the symptoms that arise during the performance of the test.Figure 2. Main sources of false positives.Problems Arising from the Gold Conjugate. Areas of the gold particles may become partly uncovered by proteins for any of several reasons. Antibodies may be removed while drying the gold conjugate or during the test procedure, or the conjugate may have been poorly coated in the first place. For any of these reasons, naked gold regions will be attracted to any positively charged protein or nitrocellulose or nylon membrane. This will be especially true as the gold passes through the capture line, since distances are very small and the likelihood of physical contact is great. It is therefore very important to coat the gold particles effectively and thoroughly so that the proteins do not detach during storage, handling, or the performance of the test. Apart from the attraction of gold to the capture line, the conjugated antibody itself may be attracted to the capture line under certain operating conditions. This may again be due to charge or hydrophobic interactions, and may depend on the acidic or ionic environment during the procedure. Excess gold conjugate will create several problems. Primarily it will increase the possibility of false-positive signals at the capture line simply because of the large quantity of gold conjugate passing the line. It will also greatly increase the likelihood of backflow of gold after the test period has elapsed. A good-quality gold conjugate should not need to be used in excess. Gold conjugate might also be clustered, for a variety of reasons, usually through poor manufacturing. Large-enough clusters may block the membrane at any point where there is a restriction. If clustering is caused by the gold being hydrophobic, then the gold particles may also stick to the capture antibody during the flow of the conjugate. The gold-labeled antibody may react nonspecifically and immunologically with the capture antibody regardless of whether analyte is present. While such reactions between a pair of antibodies may not always be detected in ELISA techniques, the method of forcing labeled antibody to flow very close to capture antibody in a nitrocellulose membrane increases this possibility. In addition, especially where polyclonal antibodies are used, there may be some nonspecific reactivity with other analytes in the sample, depending on the purity of the antibodies. False-Positive Signals Associated with the Capture Antibody. A variety of factors cause some capture antibodies to behave in a nonspecific sticky manner. Such behavior may be due to hydrophobicity, nonspecific immune reactions, additives within the antibody, high positive charge, or a high concentration of sulphur-containing amino acids in the capture protein which will attract the gold. The same forces that cause antibodies to adsorb and bind onto the surfaces of gold particles during conjugation can actually work here with the capture antibody to the detriment of the lateral-flow test performance. Difficulties Associated with the Solid-Phase Materials. Nitrocellulose membranes are extremely fragile and are easily damaged by contact. It is therefore very important to avoid any mechanical contact with the membrane surface during the procedure for striping the capture antibody. If the membrane is compressed at the capture line while the capture antibody is being applied, there is an increased risk of nonspecific trapping of gold conjugate at that point during the flow of the sample. Two things can cause residual gold to stick at the capture line—too slow a flow of the gold along the membrane, or too slow a release from the conjugate pad. These events can happen if the membrane has too small a pore size, if there is not sufficient surfactant in the strip, or if there is poor contact between the membrane and the gold conjugate pad or the absorbing pad. Also, the membrane may be hydrophobic, thus hindering smooth flow of the gold conjugate. In addition, some samples can be very viscous (serum, for instance), which also slows down the flow. Gold can also stick at the capture line when there is an insufficient amount of sample or of surfactant in the system to wash all the gold along the strip. If the test takes too long to read (usually anything longer than 15 minutes), there is a possibility that excess gold conjugate will start flowing back down the strip from the absorbing pad onto the membrane as the latter dries out. Gold returning from the absorbing pad is very likely to dry out at the capture line because during drying the capture antibody becomes very hydrophobic. Risks Associated with Added Chemicals. Some lateral-flow test manufacturers perform blocking of membranes as a matter of course. With certain membranes, and when applying certain types of sample, blocking procedures convert the membrane from a chromatographic separator (bibulous) to a nonchromatographic strip (nonbibulous). This conversion is designed to improve the flow of the sample and the gold conjugate along the membrane strip. However, blocking a membrane by immersion in a protein or surfactant solution is also likely to wash out any additives that the manufacturer incorporated to prevent the membrane from drying completely and becoming hydrophobic. Such blocking may thus cause the membrane to behave in a more hydrophobic manner when dry and can even cause more-general background staining or false-positive signals at the capture line. Alternatively, blocking with excess protein or surfactant can produce high viscosity during sample flow and may reduce the sample clearance rate. Blocking with the wrong kind of reagents can also change the characteristics of the capture antibody, making it more sticky through charge, hydrophobicity, or increased sulfur-hydrogen (SH) attachments. Blocking should only be used for demonstrably good reasons, such as when the flow of sample or gold needs improving, and then only with minimum reagent concentrations. Some preservatives, whether in the capture antibody, labeled antibody, or sample, can produce false positives. Thimerosal, which contains both sulphur and mercury, and lysine, which is always very positively charged at pH <10.4, are particularly troublesome. Problems Specific to the Sample. Many samples contain components which may bind nonspecifically to the gold conjugate or to the capture line, and in doing so may produce nonspecific results. For example, samples may contain bacteria that may be partly broken down into cellular fragments and that may be extremely hydrophobic. These hydrophobic cellular fragments may also produce cross-linking between the capture line and the gold conjugate. Other samples may contain high levels of sulphur or SH groups, or be very positively charged. In addition, some samples may contain large enough molecular or cellul

1、读zhǎng 。如涨潮 zhǎngcháo，涨水 zhǎngshuǐ2、读zhàng。如他～红了脸，豆子泡～了。

英语四六级写作25个加分句型 一、~~~ the + ~ est + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc) ~~~ the most + 形容词 + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc) 例句：Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen. 海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。 Mr. Chang is the kindest teacher that I have ever had. 张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。 二、Nothing is + ~~~ er than to + V Nothing is + more + 形容词 + than to + V 例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education. 没有比接受教育更重要的事。 三、~~~ cannot emphasize the importance of ~~~ too much.（再怎么强调...的重要性也不为过。） 例句：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much. 我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。 四、There is no denying that + S + V ...（不可否认的...） 例句：There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse. 不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。 五、It is universally acknowledged that + 句子~~ （全世界都知道...） 例句：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us. 全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。 六、There is no doubt that + 句子~~ （毫无疑问的...） 例句：There is no doubt that our educational system leaves something to be desired. 毫无疑问的我们的教育制度令人不满意。 七、An advantage of ~~~ is that + 句子 （...的优点是...） 例句：An advantage of using the solar energy is that it won"t create (produce) any pollution. 使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。 八、The reason why + 句子 ~~~ is that + 句子 （...的原因是...） 例句：The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air./ The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us. 我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。 九、So + 形容词 + be + 主词 + that + 句子 （如此...以致于...） 例句：So precious is time that we can"t afford to waste it. 时间是如此珍贵，我们经不起浪费它。 十、Adj + as + Subject（主词）+ be, S + V~~~ （虽然...） 例句：Rich as our country is, the qualities of our living are by no means satisfactory. {by no means = in no way = on no account 一点也不} 虽然我们的国家富有，我们的生活品质绝对令人不满意。 十一、The + ~er + S + V, ~~~the + ~er + S + V ~~~ The + more + Adj + S + V, ~~~the + more + Adj + S + V~~~（愈...愈...） 例句：The harder you work, the more progress you make. 你愈努力，你愈进步。 The more books we read, the more learned we become. 我们书读愈多，我们愈有学问。 十二、By +Ving, ~~ can ~~ （借着...，..能够..） 例句：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy. 借着做运动，我们能够始终保持健康。 十三、~~~ enable + Object（受词）+ to + V （..使..能够..） 例句：Listening to music enable us to feel relaxed. 听音乐使我们能够感觉轻松。 十四、On no account can we + V ~~~ （我们绝对不能...） 例句：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge. 我们绝对不能忽略知识的价值。 十五、It is time + S + 过去式 （该是...的时候了） 例句：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems. 该是有关当局采取适当的措施来解决交通问题的时候了。 十六、Those who ~~~ （...的人...） 例句：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished. 违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。 十七、There is no one but ~~~ （没有人不...） 例句：There is no one but longs to go to college. 没有人不渴望上大学。 十八、be + forced/compelled/obliged + to + V （不得不...） 例句：Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports. 既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。 十九、It is conceivable that + 句子 （可想而知的） It is obvious that + 句子 （明显的） It is apparent that + 句子 （显然的） 例句：It is conceivable that knowledge plays an important role in our life. 可想而知，知识在我们的一生中扮演一个重要的角色。 二十、That is the reason why ~~~ （那就是...的原因） 例句：Summer is sultry. That is the reason why I don"t like it. 夏天很燠热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。 二十一、For the past + 时间，S + 现在完成式...（过去...年来，...一直...） 例句：For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination. 过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。 二十二、Since + S + 过去式，S + 现在完成式。 例句：Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard. 自从他上高中，他一直很用功。 二十三、It pays to + V ~~~ （...是值得的。） 例句：It pays to help others. 帮助别人是值得的。 二十四、be based on （以...为基础） 例句：The progress of thee society is based on harmony. 社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。 二十五、Spare no effort to + V （不遗余力的） 例句：We should spare no effort to beautify our environment. 我们应该不遗余力的美化我们的环境。 还有下面这些是我正在读的一些原版书里的好句子 You can never have too much sky. You can fall asleep and wake up drunk on sky, and sky can keep you safe when you are sad. Here there is too much sadness and not enough sky. Butterflies too are few and so are flowers and most things that are beautiful. Still, we take what we can get and make the best of 。你永远不能拥有太多的天空。你可以在天空下睡去，醒来又沉醉。在你忧伤的时候，天空会给你安慰。可是忧伤太多，天空不够，蝴蝶不够，花儿也不够。大多美好的东西都不够。于是，我们去我们所能，好好的享用。——《芒果街上的小屋》 IT is a truth universally acknowledged, that （a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.）这是一条举世皆知的真理，那就是...（套进去^^）——《傲慢与偏见》 There is no royal road to (science.) ......路上无坦途。——马克思。 有的时候一个很好的单词作用也是非常强大的哦~可以替换以下哈~这些都是传说中的big words~ 1. important =crucial (extremely important),significant(amount or effect large enough to be important) 2.common=universal, ubiquitous(if something is ubiquitous, it seems to be everywhere) 3.abundant=ample(enough and usually extra), plentiful(enough for people"s needs and wants)1 4.stick=adhere, cling(hold on something tightly)1 5.neglect=ignore.(difference: neglect means someone has not paid enough attention to something; ignore means no attention.) 6.near=adjacent(twothings next to each other), adjoin(the same as adjacent)" 7.pursue=woo(man woos woman, old-fashioned), seek(if you seek sth, you try to obtain it. FORMAL) 8.accurate=precise(precise is exact and accurate in all details), exact(correct in every detail) 9.vague=obscure(unknown or known by only a few people) 10.top=peak, summit 11.competitor=rival, opponent(especially in sports and politics)1 12.blame=condemn(if you condemn something, you say it is very bad and unacceptable) 13.opinon=perspective, standpoint(means looking at an event or situation in a particular way) 14.fame=prestige(describe those who are admired), reputation 15.build=erect(you can erect something as buildings, FORMAL), establish 16.insult=humiliate(do something or say something which makes people feel ashamed or stupid) 17.complain=grumble (complain something in a bad-tempered way) 18.primary=radical (very important and great in degree), fundamental 19.relieve=alleviate (alleviate means you make pain or sufferings less intense or severe) 20.force=coerces into(coerce means you make someone do something s/he does not want to),compel 21.enlarge=magnify(magnify means make something larger than it really is) 22.complex=intricate(if something is intricate, it often has many small parts and details) 23. Lonely=solitary (if someone is solitary, there is no one near him/her 24.small=minuscule(very small), minute, V. A. B8 Q6 w, p$ S 25.praise=extol(stronger than praise), compliment(polite and political) 26.hard-working=assiduous(someone who is assiduous works hard or does things very thoroughly 27.difficult=arduous (if something is arduous, it is difficult and tiring, and involves a lot of efforts) 28.poor(soil)=barren, infertile(used to describe the soil is so poor that plants cannot be planted on it) 29.fragile=brittle, vulnerable(someone who is vulnerable is easily hurt emotionally or physically)+ 30.show=demonstrate (to demonstrate a fact means tp make it clear to people.) 31.big=massive(large in size, quantity, or extent), colossal(use this word, you emphasize something"s large), tremendous(INFORMAL)+ 32.avoid=shun(if someone shuns something, s/he deliberately avoid that something or keep away from it.)% [- ?0 B/ X: V 33.fair=impartial(someone who is impartial is able to give a fair opinion or decision on something.)0 U! V0 e/ a" h0 L8 ~ 34.attack=assault (physically attack someone), assail (attack violently 35.dislike=abhor(abhor means you hate something to a extreme extent for moral reasons), loathe(dislike very much)! 36.ruin=devastate (it means damage something very badly, or utterly destroy it.) 39.always=invariably(the same as always, but better than always)4 40.forever=perpetual(a perpetual state never changes), immutable(something immutable will never change or be changed) 41.surprise=startle(it means surprise you slightly), astound(surprise you to a large degree),astonish(the same as astound) 42.enthusiasm=zeal (a great enthusiasm), fervency (sincere and enthusiasm)# 43.quiet=tranquil(calm and peaceful), serene(calm and quiet)! 44.expensive=exorbitant(it means too expensive that it should be) 45.luxurious=lavish(impressive and very expensive), sumptuous(grand and very expensive 46.boring=tedious(if you describe something tedious, you mean it is boring and frustrating) 47.respect=esteem(if you esteem someone, you respect and admire him/her. FORMAL) 48.worry=fret(if you fret about something, you worry about it) 49.cold=chilly(unpleasantly cold), icy(extremely cold) 50.hot=boiling(very hot) 51.dangerous=perilous(very dangerous, hazardous(dangerous, especially to people"s safety and health)/ { 52.nowadays=currently 53.only=unique(the only one of its kind), distinctive; 54.stop=cease(if something ceases, it stops happening or existing) 55.part=component(the components of something are the parts that it is made of)( h 56.result=consequence(the results or effects of something) 57.obvious=apparent, manifest 58.basedon=derived fromcan see or notice them very easily) 60.quite=fairly 61.pathetic=lamentable(very uncomfortable and disappointing) 62.field=domain(a particular field of thought, activities or interest) 63.appear=emerge(come into existence) 64.whole=entire(the whole of something)8 65.wet=moist(slightly wet), damp(slightly wet), humid(very damp and hot)! 66.wrong=erroneous(incorrect or partly correct) 67.difficult=formidable 68.change=convert(change into another form) 69.typical=quintessential(this word means represent a typical example of something) 70.careful=cautious(very careful in order to avoid danger), prudent(careful and sensible) 71.ability=capacity, capability(the same as ability) 72.strange=eccentric(if some one is eccentric, s/he behaves in a strange way, or his/her opinion is different from most people) 73.rich=affluent(if you are affluent, you have a lot of money) 74.use= utilize (the same as use) 75.dubious=skeptical(if you are skeptical about something, you have doubts on it.) 76.satisfy=gratify (if you are gratified by something, it gives you pleasure and satisfaction) 77.short=fleeting, ephemeral(if something is ephemeral, it lasts a short time) 78.scholarship=fellowship 79.angry=enraged(extremely angry) 80.smelly=malodorous(used to describe an unpleasant smell) 81.ugly=hideous(if something is hideous, it is very ugly or unattractive)# 82.attractive=appealing(pleasing and attractive), absorbing(something absorbing can attract you a great deal) 83.diverse=miscellaneous(a miscellaneous groups consists of many different kinds of things) 84.disorder=disarray, chaos 85.crazily=frantically(used to describe someone who behaves in a wild and uncontrolled way) 86.rapid=meteoric(ATTENTION: meteoric is only used to describe someone achieves success quickly) 87.ordinary=mundane(very ordinary and not at interesting or unusual) 88.despite=notwithstanding(FORMAL) 89.best=optimal(used to describe the best level something can achieve)/ 90.sharp=acute(severe and intense) 91.unbelievable=inconceivable(ifyou deem something inconceivable, you think it very unlike to happen ^ 92.puzzle=perplex(something perplex someone means it confuses and worries him/her because he/she does not understand it) 93.method=avenue(away of getting something done) 94.famous=distinguished(used to describe people who are successful in their career) 95.ancient=archaic(extremely old and extremely old-fashioned) 96.decorate=embellish(embellish means make something look more attractive via decorating it with something else)/ 97.possible=feasible(if something is feasible, it can be done, made or achieved) 98.so=consequently, accordingly 99.rare=infrequent (doesn"t happen often 100.greedy=rapacious(greedy and selfish) 以下是其他的搜集 英语写作常用句型（一）段首句 1. 关于……人们有不同的观点。一些人认为…… There are different opinions among people as to ____ .Some people suggest that ____. 2. 俗话说（常言道）……，它是我们前辈的经历，但是，即使在今天， 它在许多场合仍然适用。 There is an old saying______. Its the experience of our forefathers，however，it is correct in many cases even today. 3. 现在，……，它们给我们的日常生活带来了许多危害。首先，……； 其次，……。更为糟糕的是……。 Today, ____, which have brought a lot of harms in our daily life. First, ____ Second,____. What makes things worse is that______. 4. 现在，……很普遍，许多人喜欢……，因为……，另外（而且） ……。 Nowadays，it is common to ______. Many people like ______ because ______. Besi

His hand touched his thinning hair self-consciously

glass producing industry

Born in 1938 in Hamburg, Germany Karl Lagerfeld , 14-year-old when the family moved to Paris, by virtue of their international educational background and multi-country language skills, complete their studies. In 1955, Lagerfeld fledgling International Wool Secretariat in organized amateur fashion design competition come to the fore the age of seventeen he became a Master Pierre Balmain Paris fashion design assistant. Add three years after Jean Patou fashion company substantial absorption of the same period of history, architecture, music and other knowledge, Lagerfeld created a rich humanistic quality. Since then he began to design clothing, fabrics and accessories and other fashion-related things, at the same time, the leather for fashion design. Finally his talent was appreciated by FENDI initiated long-term cooperation, but also the future reformers FENDI. It is worth mentioning that in 1975 launched Lagerfeld CHLOE perfume, the fragrance became the first launch, but do not have their own brand of designer clothing. Work with solid, innovative tailoring techniques, gradually laid Lagerfeld in Paris, the fashion industry"s position in 1983 was invited as chief designer of Chanel; in 1984 founded his own clothing brand Karl Lagerfeld, who has continued after Chanel, FENDI and Chole"s artistic director. Lagerfeld in 1987 decided to join the photography job, personally for their own design studio filming media brochures, began to assume all of the advertising, because of the love of photography, making him every campaign has also become a real art. Lagerfeld in 1998 to fashion, books and photographic combination of three loved ones, set up galleries Lagerfeld, Karl Lagerfeld showed a complete knowledge, rich culture and the avant-garde taste Forever. Forever him who are fashion idols.http://baike.baidu.com/view/966296.htm这个网址有资料不过都是中文的，但你可以下载翻译软件去翻译的

　　公共英语二级阅读理解扩展文章 篇1 　　Prices determine how resources are to be used. They are also the means by which products and services that are in limited supply are rationed among buyers. The price system of the United States is a complex network composed of the prices of all the products bought and sold in the economy as well as those of a myriad of services, including labor, professional, transportation, and public-utility services. The interrelationships of all these prices make up the"system" of prices. The price of any particular product or service is linked to a broad, complicated system of prices in which everything seems to depend more or less upon everything else. 　　If one were to ask a group of randomly selected individuals to define "price", many would reply that price is an amount of money paid by the buyer to the seller of a product or service or, in other words, that price is the money value of a product or service as agreed upon in a market transaction. This definition is, of course, valid as far as it goes. For a complete understanding of a price in any particular transaction, much more than the amount of money involved must be known. Both the buyer and the seller should be familiar with not only the money amount, but with the amount and quality of the product or service to be exchanged, the time and place at which the exchange will take place and payment will be made, the form of money to be used, the credit terms and discounts that apply to the transaction, guarantees on the product or service, delivery terms, return privileges, and other factors. In other words, both buyer and seller should be fully aware of all the factors that comprise the total "package" being exchanged for the asked-for amount of money in order that they may evaluate a given price. 　　价格决定资源的使用方式。价格也是有限的产品与服务在买方中的配给手段。美国的价格系统是复杂的网状系统，包括经济生活中一切产品买卖的价格，也包括名目繁多的各种服务，诸如劳动力、专职人员、交通运输、公共事业等服务的价格。所有这些价格的内在联系构成了价格系统。任何一种个别产品或服务的价格都与这个庞大而复杂的系统密切相关，而且或多或少地受到系统中其它成份的制约。 　　如果随机挑选一群人，问问他们如何定义"价格"，许多人会回答价格就是根据卖方提供的产品或服务，买方向其付出的钱数。换句话说，价格就是市场交易中大家认同的产品或服务的货币量。该定义就其本身来说自有其道理。但要获得对价格在任何一桩交易中的完整认识，就必须考虑到大量"非货币"因素的影响。买卖双方不但要清楚交易中的钱数，而且要非常熟悉交易物的质量和数量，交易的时间、地点，采用哪种形式付款，有怎样的"缓付和优惠，对交易物的质量保证、交货条款、退赔权利等等。也就是说，为了能估算索价，买卖双方必须通晓构成交易物价格的通盘细节。 　　公共英语二级阅读理解扩展文章 篇2 　　Andrew Carnegie, known as the King of Steel, built the steel industry in the United States, and, in the process, became one of the wealthiest men in America. His success resulted in part from his ability to sell the product and in part from his policy of expanding during periods of economic decline, when most of his competitors were reducing their investments. 　　Carnegie believed that individuals should progress through hard work, but he also felt strongly that the wealthy should use their fortunes for the benefit of society. He opposed charity, preferring instead to provide educational opportunities that would allow others to help themselves. "He who dies rich, dies disgraced, " he often said.Among his more noteworthy contributions to society are those that bear his name, including the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, which has a library, a museum of fine arts, and a museum of national history. He also founded a school of technology that is now part of Carnegie-Mellon University. Other philanthropic gifts are the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace to promote understanding between nations, the Carnegie Institute of Washington to fund scientific research, and Carnegie Hall to provide a center for the arts. 　　Few Americans have been left untouched by Andrew Carnegie"s generosity. His contributions of more than five million dollars established 2,500 libraries in small communities throughout the country and formed the nucleus of the public library system that we all enjoy today. 　　被称作钢铁大王的安德鲁·卡内基在美国建立了钢铁工业。在这个过程中，他变成了美国最富有的人之一。 他的成功，部分来自于他销售产品的能力，部分来自于经济萧条时期的扩充策略。在萧条时期，他的多数对手都在缩减投资。 　　卡内基认为个人应该通过努力工作来获得进展，但他也强烈地感到有钱人应该运用他们的财富来为社会谋 取福利。他反对施舍救济，更愿意提供教育机会，使别人自立。卡内基经常说："富有着死去的人死得可耻。"他对社会的较重要的贡献都以他的名字命名。这些贡献包括匹兹堡卡内基学校。这个学校有一个图书馆，一个美术馆和一个国家历史博物馆;他还创立了一所技术学校，这所学校现在是卡内基梅隆大学的一部分;其他的慈善捐赠有为促进国家间了解的"卡内基国际和平基金"，为科学研究提供经费的华盛顿卡内基学院以及给各种艺术活动提供活动中心的卡内基音乐厅。 　　安德鲁·卡内基的慷慨大度几乎影响到每个美国人的生活。由于他超过五百万美元的捐款，2500 个图书馆得以建立起来，遍布在美国各地的小村镇，形成了我们今天还在享用的公共图书馆系统的核心。 　　公共英语二级阅读理解扩展文章 篇3 　　Jogging has become the most popular individual sport in America. Many theories, even some mystical ones, have been advanced to explain the popularity of jogging. The plain truth is that jogging is a cheap, quick and efficient way to maintain physical fitness. 　　The most useful sort of exercise is exercise that develops the heart, lungs, and circulatory systems. If these systems are fit, the body is ready for almost any sport and for almost any sudden demand made by work or emergencies. One can train more specifically, as by developing strength for weight lifting or the ability to run straight ahead for short distances with great power s in football, but running trains your heart and lungs to deliver oxygen more efficiently to all parts of your body. It is worth noting that this sort of exercise is the only kind that can reduce heart disease, the number one cause of death in America. 　　Only one sort of equipment is needed a good pair of shoes. Physicians advise beginning joggers not to run in a tennis or gym shoe. Many design advances have been made in only the last several years that make an excellent running shoe in dispensable if a runner wishes to develop as quickly as possible, with as little chance of injury as possible. A good running shoe will have a soft pad for absorbing shock, as well as a slightly built-up heel and a full heelcup that will give the knee and ankle more stability. A wise investment in good shoes will prevent bilisters and the foot, ankle and knee injures and will also enable the wearer to run on paved or soft surfaces. 　　公共英语二级阅读理解扩展文章 篇4 　　Upon reaching an appropriate age (usually between 18 and 21 years), children are encouraged, but not forced, to “leave the nest” and begin an independent life. After children leave home they often find social relationship and financial support outside the family. Parents do not arrange marriages for their children, nor do children usually ask permission of their parents to get married, Romantic love is most often the basis for marriage in the United States; young adults meet their future spouses through other friends, at jobs, and in organizations and religious institutions, Although children choose their own spouses, they still hope their parents will approve of their choices. 　　In many families, parents feel that children should make major life decisions by themselves. A parent may try to influence a child to follow a particular profession but the child is free to choose another career. Sometimes children do precisely the opposite of what their parents wish in order to assert their independence. A son may deliberately decide not to go into his father"s business because of a fear that he will lose his autonomy in his father"s workplace. This independence from parents is not an indication that parents and children do not love each other. Strong love between parents and children is universal and this is no exception in the American family Coexisting with such love in the American family are cultural values of self – reliance and independence. 　　子女一旦到适当年龄(通常是18至21岁)，要鼓励而不是强迫他们“离开窝的，财政的巢”，开始独立生活。小孩离开家后，往往在外能够与人交往，并自谋出路。父母不为子女安排婚姻，子女结婚也通常无需获得父母同意。在美国，浪漫的爱情往往是婚姻的基础，通过朋友在学校、单位、组织以及宗教团体认识自己的，爱情的未来的伴侣。尽管子女自己择偶，他们仍然希望父母能认同他们的选择。 　　许多家庭的父母认为，应由子女自己来做他们生活中的重大决定。家长可能会设法影响子女去从事某一职业，但子女也有选择其它职业的自由。有时为了证实自己的独立性，子女从事的工作正好与父母希望的相反。儿子可能执意不去父亲的企业工作，因为担心在那里就不能独立自主。这种不依靠父母的独立性并不意味着父母与子女之间缺乏爱心。父母和子女之间普遍都有挚爱，美国家庭也毫不例外。只不过在美国家庭之中，还融合了自主、独立的文化价值观念。 　　公共英语二级阅读理解扩展文章 篇5 　　A painter hangs his or her finished pictures on a wall, and everyone can see it. A composer writes a work, but no one can hear it until it is performed. Professional singers and players have great responsibilities, for the composer is utterly dependent on them. A student of music needs as long and as arduous a training to become a performer as a medical student needs to become a doctor. Most training is concerned with technique, for musicians have to have the muscular proficiency of an athlete or a ballet dancer. Singers practice breathing every day, as their vocal chords would be inadequate without controlled muscular support. String players practice moving the fingers of the left hand up and down, while drawing the bow to and fro with the right arm-two entirely different movements. 　　Singers and instruments have to be able to get every note perfectly in tune. Pianists are spared this particular anxiety, for the notes are already there, waiting for them, and it is the piano tuner"s responsibility to tune the instrument for them. But they have their own difficulties; the hammers that hit the string have to be coaxed not to sound like percussion, and each overlapping tone has to sound clear. 　　This problem of getting clear texture is one that confronts student conductors: they have to learn to know every note of the music and how it should sound, and they have to aim at controlling these sound with fanatical but selfless authority. 　　Technique is of no use unless it is combined with musical knowledge and understanding. Great artists are those who are so thoroughly at home in the language of music that they can enjoy performing works written in any century. 　　公共英语二级阅读理解扩展文章 篇6 　　Every weekday morning I take the 8:30 bus to go to my job. I know by sight several people who also fide that bus. Some of the girls work as maids. They get off at each stop in ones, twos or threes. 　　But at one corner something wonderful happens. Before the bus stops, a little dog races out of the nearest house. He doesn"t look at two of the maids who get off. But for the third he has a joyful "Hello!". From head to tail his little body wags his happiness. Everyone on the bus watches until the maid and the dog go into the house. 　　One day not long ago the maid wasn"t on the bus. I wondered if the dog would be waiting for her. Sure enough, he was! 　　He stood at the back door of the bus for a minute. I could see his joyful welcome turning into fearful worry. Where was she? 　　The driver closed the back door. The dog raced to the front door. It, too, shut in his face. 　　Everyone on the bus felt sad. Poor little pup! He looked so unhappy, standing there! 　　The driver couldn"t stand it. He opened the door and looked down at the dog. "She didn"t come today," he said, in a loud, kind voice. 　　A man in a front seat leaned forward. "Maybe she will come tomorrow," he called. 　　The dog wagged his tail as if to say "thank you." He watched the bus as we pulled away. Then he turned to trot home ── alone. 　　The next day everyone on the bus was happy to see the maid back again. Yes, the dog was waiting for her. 　　The welcome he gave her was even warmer and more delighted than usual. We all smiled at one another. How bright and good the morning suddenly seemed to us! 　　公共英语二级阅读理解扩展文章 篇7 　　There was a time in my life when beauty meant something special to me. I guess that would have been when I was about six or seven years old, just several weeks or maybe a month before the orphanage turned me into an old man. 　　I would get up every morning at the orphanage, make my bed just like the little soldier that I had become and then I would get into one of the two straight lines and march to breakfast with the other twenty or thirty boys who also lived in my dormitory. 　　After breakfast one Saturday morning I returned to the dormitory and saw the house parent chasing the beautiful monarch butterflies who lived by the hundreds in the azalea bushes strewn around the orphanage. 　　I carefully watched as he caught these beautiful creatures, one after the other, and then took them from the net and then stuck straight pins through their head and wings, pinning them onto a heavy cardboard sheet. 　　How cruel it was to kill something of such beauty. I had walked many times out into the bushes, all by myself, just so the butterflies could land on my head, face and hands so I could look at them up close. 　　When the telephone rang the house parent laid the large cardboard paper down on the back cement step and went inside to answer the phone. I walked up to the cardboard and looked at the one butterfly who he had just pinned to the large paper. It was still moving about so I reached down and touched it on the wing causing one of the pins to fall out. It started flying around and around trying to get away but it was still pinned by the one wing with the other straight pin. Finally it"s wing broke off and the butterfly fell to the ground and just quivered. 　　I picked up the torn wing and the butterfly and I spat on it"s wing and tried to get it to stick back on so it could fly away and be free before the house parent came back. But it would not stay on him. 　　The next thing I knew the house parent came walking back out of the back door by the garbage room and started yelling at me. I told him that I did not do anything but he did not believe me. He picked up the cardboard paper and started hitting me on the top of the head. There were all kinds of butterfly pieces going everywhere. He threw the cardboard down on the ground and told me to pick it up and put it in the garbage can inside the back room of the dormitory and then he left. 　　I sat there in the dirt, by that big old tree, for the longest time trying to fit all the butterfly pieces back together so I could bury them whole, but it was too ha

HH ,好长啊

ESC（Energy Absorbing Steering Column），中文称为能量吸收式方向机柱或是可溃缩式方向机柱。当车辆发生严重撞击事故尤其是正前方撞击时，人的胸部及头部因离方向盘较近，因此很容易就会撞到方向盘，虽然此时安全气囊（Air Bag）会瞬间爆开以避免驾驶者的上半身与脸部直接撞上方向盘，但如果是极为严重的撞击时车身溃缩之后方向盘会向后挤压，就连安全气囊也无法百分之百的承接驾驶者向前及方向盘向后挤压的惯性，而使驾驶者受到不小的伤害。为了解决这个问题，工程师们发明了ESC（Energy Absorbing Steering Column），也就是可溃缩式方向机柱。ESC-可溃缩式方向机柱在受到较大撞击时，会迫使方向机柱中的安全插销剪断，以切断方向盘向后冲击的力道并使整个方向盘向仪表板内溃缩，以避免驾驶者在撞击力过大的状况下，因碰撞到方向盘而造成伤害，并将伤害降至最低。虽然现今的汽车都配备了许多高科技的安全辅助系统，以提升车辆与乘员在行驶时的安全，但这些系统也只是辅助，并不是万能也无法绝对的确保乘员的安全，唯有养成良好的驾驶习惯与德道，确实的遵守交通规则，随时注意车辆状况以及定期为车辆做保养与检查才是真正安全的不二法门

1. Pentachlorophenol on the yellow soil in three different soil depth of the absorption of static and dynamic adsorption and desorption dynamic and thermodynamic equation and use dynamic equations describing its absorption characteristics. The results showed that: three different soil depth of pentachlorophenol a certain absorption capacity in 90 min to reach equilibrium, the leaching of saturated absorption capacity of 50 μ g / g, deposition of the absorption capacity of saturated adsorption Capacity of 43.48 μ g / g, quality of the mother for 40 μ g / g, Freundilich adsorption isotherm can be used to describe the yellow soil PCP on the adsorption of. When the pH value of less than 5, when the acid soil, the soil of pentachlorophenol adsorption with pH values decrease with the increase. Ionic strength of the increase will improve the soil in the absorption of PCP quantity. Dynamic adsorption experiments, the soil by 5 μ g / mL of pentachlorophenol solution leaching, the leaching of soil layer in the adsorption time for 400 min, leaching solution volume of 750 mL, adsorption achieve balance in the deposition of the adsorption time for 510 min, Leaching solution volume of 850 mL, adsorption achieve balance of the mother-in adsorption time for 550 min, leaching solution volume of 950 mL, adsorption balanced. Dynamic desorption experiment, to continue to use tap water leaching of soil, soil in the leaching of desorption time 820 min, leaching solution volume of 400 mL, desorption achieve balance in the deposition of desorption time for the 1135 min, leaching solution volume of 500 mL, , Desorption achieve balance in the dissolution of desorption time for the 1450 min, leaching solution volume of 550 mL, desorption balanced. 2. The study of pentachlorophenol in the solution of activated carbon on the static and dynamic adsorption behavior. The results showed that: activated carbon to pentachlorophenol a good absorption properties, in 90 min to reach equilibrium, static saturated absorption capacity of 32.3 mg / g. The experiment within the framework of equilibrium and relations with Freundilich Langmuir isotherm, the correlation coefficient of 0.981 and 0.984 respectively. pH value in the range of 5 to 11 had no effect on the absorption capacity. Dynamic experiments, 2.5 g activated carbon-loaded by 40 μ g / mL pentachlorophenol dynamic adsorption, the outflow of fluid volume of 630 mL, the activated carbon adsorption basically saturated. Different concentrations of pentachlorophenol solution, the higher the rate of absorption of the smaller, the slower the flow rate, the higher the rate of absorption, the highest absorption rate of up to 100%. 3. The study of pentachlorophenol in the aqueous HDX-8 macroporous resin on the static and dynamic adsorption and desorption. The results showed that: 70 min to reach equilibrium, passive absorption of saturated solution to 7.351 mg / L, such as adsorption isotherm with Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm, the correlation coefficient of 0.99 in all the above. 1mol / L NaOH solution as a static test of desorption, desorption rate of 77 percent, the balance of desorption time 120 min. Adsorption solution in the dynamic test the concentration of smaller, the smaller the flow rate, the higher the rate of absorption, the highest absorption rate of 99.56 percent. Dynamic desorption with 1 mol / L NaOH solution to 0.5 mL / min flow rate of desorption, desorption the best, desorption rate can reach 96 percent or more.

反义词: 缩

Anhui thinking Marta (International) Ltd trade Anhui thinking Church International Trading Limited (Municipality City branch) located in Anhui Province Municipality City, the city of city medicine is one of enjoyment, "Hua Tuo native place, the township used" name. The company immediately Beijing - Kowloon line, the back has beautiful scenery Guohe, rely on China witnessed medicines trading center. I mainly companies and the import and export trade and processing of medicinal herbs based monopolies, the main operating plants species are : peeled root of herbaceous peony, Bellflower, Huang Qi, Danpi, licorice roots, a total of more than 200 kinds of Chinese herbal medicines. Cooperation with the Nanjing University is, the production of medicines ceramic powder Its major features are : under different materials, products for small to 1.0~~2.0 micrometers, effective material products easier to absorb and improving efficiency in the use of expensive medicines to avoid the use of the wrong way and caused material damage to the effectiveness. Fill it with other material at the same time smashing and other products can be directly fed capsules packaging. These powder mainly for beauty, health supplies, food additives and Chinese medicine grown, the current development of our products have been exported to Korea, Japan, the United States and Southeast Asia, and other countries. Company to honesty and trustworthiness, and the principle of the primacy of foreign clients from a wide range of old and new trade cooperation! Do with my companies at home and overseas trade! Chinese herbal medicines technical ceramic smash Project profiles Chinese medicine by the University and Nanjing Medical University Division and other units testing and animal tests proved that the minuscule medicines in intake into the body, eating, are easily absorbed as membrane and skin. Ceramic medicines for clinical may enhance the efficacy of the drug and use of degrees, and is expected to replace prescription process, taking more convenient. Consequently, modern ceramic pieces combining technology with traditional Chinese medicine, Chinese medicine is accelerating, modern Chinese medicine an important way. "center" of the equipment and processing technologies designed to plants, animals and minerals such as hundreds of different kinds of Chinese herbal medicines nature of the ceramic processing, and achieved good results. Main features 1, according to the different materials and products for small to 1.0~2.0 m (12,500 eye -6250 eye) 2, effective products easier to absorb material 3, in a luxurious improve efficiency in the use of Chinese herbal medicines 4, avoided as a result of ground, by way of extraction of material damage to the effectiveness of 5, and medicinal and other fill material at the same time crush, product packaging can be directly fed capsules Market Applications According to a survey, the current domestic Chinese herbal medicines, such as pollen, ants, condenser noodles are more used to the original state, the low utilization of drugs, require multiple minuscule smash 160 varieties, a few years to crush amounted to 1,000 tonnes, up to 500 tons per year as pollen. These ceramic products and exports of major international market requirements considerably. We have developed four products exported to the United States, the Netherlands, Belgium and Japan. It is expected that pollen exports to 300 yr, ants, condenser thrown more than 200 yr.

I spend the whole weekend totally absorbed in the biography of Bill Clinton.absorbed换成being absorbed呢？spend ...doing

园艺<br>各种年龄的人中的每一个部分，世界上种植粮食和鲜花在gardens.gardening为一些人是一个愉快的娱乐，对他人的吸收hobby.to以百万计，这是工作的他们，让他们自己每天的面包和帮助饲料其余的字。 <br>其中一个最好的事情，家居的园艺种植是，它可以根据所享有的任何人谁爱的性质和谁有几个平方英尺的土壤，在其中工作。从时间儿童可以先toddle后，他们的母亲，帮助拉杂草和植物种子，园艺，可以令人兴奋和有趣的为他们所有他们的生命。 <br>园艺，使一个人欣赏美，并给出了一个实现植物，象所有其他的生活的东西，会，以及和heathy只有当他们获得良好的照顾，适当的食物，并享有水和sunshine.anyone谁植物的花园，必须“后续通过“如果他想success.a周的忽视杂草拉动或浇水，在难耐的干旱可能会导致在一个破坏garden.plants生活的东西，和他们应得的良好的护理对部分的园丁。 <br>家庭谁住在最小型或中型的地方，能和这样做的所有园艺themselves.sometimes的专家，或景观设计师是所谓的在使第一plans.perhaps他计划树木，灌木和绿篱，并奠定了出车道。

网络游戏发展史 在今年5月的GDC 2002（游戏开发者大会）上，有一场关于网络游戏的研讨会，与会者包括《网络创世纪》、《无尽的任务》、《亚瑟王的暗黑时代》、《天堂》、《模拟人生在线》和《星球大战：星系》等热门网络游戏，以及Xbox Live等游戏机网络平台的项目负责人，研讨会的主题为“Building a Third Generation, Online Persistent World”（创造第三代网络游戏）。第三代网络游戏究竟是怎样的？前两代网络游戏分别是如何划定的？三代网络游戏之间的界定标准又是什么？这次研讨会并没有给我们一个明确的答案。一般的观点是把《网络创世纪》（Ultima Online）视为网络游戏的奠基者，把2D画面为主或2D/3D画面混用的网络游戏统称为“第一代网络游戏”，把即将在国内推出的《无尽的任务》（EverQuest）和《命运》（W.Y.D）等全3D大作视为“第二代网络游戏”。而“第三代网络游戏”的定义目前尚无定论，但我们从今年以来的发展趋势可以看出，第三代网络游戏更倾向于甩开那些用以衡量单机游戏的传统标准，如视听、操作性和游戏性等，甚至甩掉“游戏”这个字眼，而把自己定位在虚拟社区之上。换句话说，第三代网络游戏的精髓在于它的社会系统，游戏设计师所扮演的实际上更多的是社区设计师而非游戏设计师的角色。在具体的表现手法上，第三代网络游戏并无统一模式，例如《模拟人生在线》（The Sims Online）强调虚拟的社交体验，而《绝密档案》（Majestic）则强调交互方式的多样化。然而这种划分方法的不足之处也很明显，一是缺乏统一的标准，前两代以游戏的画面为分界，而后两代则以游戏的内容为分界；二是所用标准不具备独占性，按画面进行划分对于网络游戏来说并无太大的实际意义，若以内容进行划分，则至今仍无人能出《网络创世纪》之左右。实际上，如果我们把视线拉远一些的话，就会发现，从《网络创世纪》，更准确地说，从1996年发布的《子午线59》（Meridian 59）开始直到现在，我们始终是在同一层面上徘徊，人为地将这短短的六年时间划为三代，难免有些牵强。更重要的是，这种划分方法完全忽略了那些曾为网络游戏的普及和发展作出贡献的开拓者，仿佛整个网络游戏业是在1997年夏天突然跳出来的。无庸置疑，《网络创世纪》的成功是网络游戏发展史上的一道重要的分水岭，但我们并不能因此而无视此前出现的一切，任何事物的质变都需要经历一个漫长的量变过程。一、第一代网络游戏：1969年至1977年 背景：由于当时的计算机硬件和软件尚无统一的技术标准，因此第一代网络游戏的平台、操作系统和语言各不相同。它们大多为试验品，运行在高等院校的大型主机上，如美国的麻省理工学院、弗吉尼亚大学，以及英国的埃塞克斯大学。游戏特征：1、非持续性，机器重启后游戏的相关信息即会丢失，因此无法模拟一个持续发展的世界；2、游戏只能在同一服务器/终端机系统内部执行，无法跨系统运行。商业模式：免费。第一款真正意义上的网络游戏可追溯到1969年，当时瑞克·布罗米为PLATO（Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations）系统编写了一款名为《太空大战》（SpaceWar）的游戏，游戏以八年前诞生于麻省理工学院的第一款电脑游戏《太空大战》为蓝本，不同之处在于，它可支持两人远程连线。PLATO是历史上最为悠久也是最著名的一套远程教学系统，由美国伊利诺斯州厄本姆的伊利诺斯大学开发于上世纪60年代末，其主要功用是为不同教育程度的学生提供高质量的远程教育，它具有庞大的课程程序库，可同时开设数百门课，可以记录下每一位学生的学习进度。PLATO还是第一套分时共享系统，它运行于一台大型主机而非微型计算机上，因此具有更强的处理能力和存储能力，这使得它所能支持的同时在线人数大大增加。1972年，PLATO的同时在线人数已达到1000多名。那些年里，PLATO平台上出现了各种不同类型的游戏，其中一小部分是供学生自娱自乐的单机游戏，而最为流行的则是可在多台远程终端机之间进行的联机游戏，这些联机游戏即是网络游戏的雏形。尽管游戏只是PLATO的附属功能，但共享内存区、标准化终端、高端图像处理能力和中央处理能力、迅速的反应能力等特点令PLATO能够出色地支持网络游戏的运行，因此在随后的几年内，PLATO成了早期网络游戏的温床。PLATO系统上最流行的游戏是《圣者》（Avatar）和《帝国》（Empire），前者是一款“龙与地下城”设定的网络游戏，后者是一款以“星际迷航”为背景的网络游戏。这些游戏绝大多数是程序员利用业余时间编写并免费发布的，他们只是希望自己的游戏能获得大家的认可。当然，也有一些开发者通过自己的游戏获得了收入，但通常每小时只有几美分，并且还得在若干作者之间进行分配。PLATO在游戏圈内并未获得其应有的荣誉和地位，但这并不能抹杀它对网络游戏以及整个游戏产业所做出的贡献。PLATO上的不少游戏日后都被改编为了游戏机游戏和PC游戏，例如《空中缠斗》（Airfight）的作者在原游戏的基础上开发了《飞行模拟》（Flight Simulator），80年代初，这款游戏被微软收购并改名为《微软飞行模拟》，成为飞行模拟类游戏中最畅销的一个系列。1974年推出的《帝国》是第一款允许32人同时在线的游戏，这一联机游戏模式成为现代即时策略游戏的标准模式。1975年发布的《奥布里特》（Oubliette）是一款地牢类游戏，大名鼎鼎的角色扮演游戏《巫术》（Wizardry）系列即源于此。有趣的是，1969年也正是ARPAnet（Advance Research Projects Agency Network）诞生的年份。大家知道，ARPAnet是美国国防部高级研究计划署研制的世界上首个包交换网络，它的成功直接促成了互联网以及传输控制协议（即TCP/IP）的诞生。二、第二代网络游戏：1978年至1995年 背景：一些专业的游戏开发商和发行商开始涉足网络游戏，如Activision、Interplay、Sierra Online、Stormfront Studios、Virgin Interactive、SSI和TSR等，都曾在这一阶段试探性地进入过这一新兴产业，它们与GEnie、Prodigy、AOL和CompuServe等运营商合作，推出了第一批具有普及意义的网络游戏。游戏特征：1、网络游戏出现了“可持续性”的概念，玩家所扮演的角色可以成年累月地在同一世界内不断发展，而不像PLATO上的游戏那样，只能在其中扮演一个匆匆过客。2、游戏可以跨系统运行，只要玩家拥有电脑和调制解调器，且硬件兼容，就能连入当时的任何一款网络游戏。商业模式：网络游戏市场的迅速膨胀刺激了网络服务业的发展，网络游戏开始进入收费时代，许多消费者都愿意支付高昂的费用来玩网络游戏。从《凯斯迈之岛》的每小时12美元到GEnie的每小时6美元，第二代网络游戏的主流计费方式是按小时计费，尽管也有过包月计费的特例，但未能形成气候。1978年在英国的埃塞克斯大学，罗伊·特鲁布肖用DEC-10编写了世界上第一款MUD游戏——“MUD1”，这是一个纯文字的多人世界，拥有20个相互连接的房间和10条指令，用户登录后可以通过数据库进行人机交互，或通过聊天系统与其他玩家交流。特鲁布肖离开埃塞克斯大学后，把维护MUD1的工作转交给了理查德·巴特尔，巴特尔利用特鲁布肖开发的MUD专用语言——“MUDDL”继续改进游戏，他把房间的数量增加到400个，进一步完善了数据库和聊天系统，增加了更多的任务，并为每一位玩家制作了计分程序。1980年埃塞克斯大学与ARPAnet相连后，来自国外的玩家大幅增加，吞噬了大量系统资源，致使校方不得不限制用户的登录时间，以减少DEC-10的负荷。80年代初，巴特尔出于共享和交流的目的，把MUD1的源代码和盘托出供同事及其它大学的研究人员参考，于是这套源代码就被流传了出去。到1983年末，ARPAnet上已经出现了数百份非法拷贝，MUD1在全球各地迅速流传开来，并出现了许多新的版本。如今，这套最古老的MUD系统已被授权给美国最大的在线信息服务机构之一——CompuServe公司，易名为“不列颠传奇”，至今仍在运行之中，成为运作时间最长的MUD系统。MUD1是第一款真正意义上的实时多人交互网络游戏，它可以保证整个虚拟世界的持续发展。尽管这套系统每天都会重启若干次，但重启后游戏中的场景、怪物和谜题仍保持不变，这使得玩家所扮演的角色可以获得持续的发展。MUD1的另一重要特征是，它可以在全世界任何一台PDP-10计算机上运行，而不局限于埃塞克斯大学的内部系统。1982年，约翰·泰勒和凯尔顿·弗林组建Kesmai公司，这家公司在网络游戏的发展史上留下了不少具有纪念意义的作品。Kesmai公司的第一份合约是与CompuServe签订的，当时约翰·泰勒看见了CompuServe打出的一则名为“太空战士”（MegaWars）的广告——“如果你能编写一款这样的游戏，你就能获得每月3万美元的版税金”，他便把同凯尔顿·弗林一起开发的《凯斯迈之岛》（The Island of Kesmai）的使用手册寄了一份给当时在CompuServe负责游戏业务的比尔·洛登，洛登对此很感兴趣。《凯斯迈之岛》的运行平台为UNIX系统，而CompuServe使用的是DEC-20计算机，于是Kesmai公司重新为CompuServe开发了一个DEC-20的版本。这款游戏运营了大约13年，1984年开始正式收费，收费标准为每小时12美元。同年，MUD1也在英国的Compunet上推出了第一个商业版本。1984年，马克·雅克布斯组建AUSI公司（《亚瑟王的暗黑时代》的开发者Mythic娱乐公司的前身），并推出游戏《阿拉达特》（Aradath）。雅克布斯在自己家里搭建了一个服务器平台，安装了8条电话线以运行这款文字角色扮演游戏，游戏的收费标准为每月40美元，这是网络游戏史上第一款采用包月制的网络游戏，包月制的收费方式有利于加速网络游戏的平民化进程，对网络游戏的普及将起到重要作用。遗憾的是，包月制在当时并没有成长起来的条件，1990年AUSI公司为《龙门》（Dragon"s Gate）定的价格为每小时20美元，尽管费率高得惊人，但仍有人愿意每月花上2000多美元去玩这款游戏，因此在80年代末90年代初，包月制并未引起人们的关注。1985年，比尔·洛登说服通用电气公司（GE）的信息服务部门投资建立了一个类似CompuServe的、商业化的、基于ASCII文本的网络服务平台，这套平台被称为GEnie（GE Network for Information Exchange）。GEnie于10月份正式启动，其低廉的收费标准在用户中间引起了巨大反响，也令一向有着强烈优越感的CompuServe感受到了竞争的压力。GEnie系统实际上是利用GE信息服务部门的服务器在夜晚的空闲时间为用户提供服务，因此收费非常低廉，晚上的价格约为每小时6美元，几乎是CompuServe的一半。同年11月，Quantum Computer Services（AOL的前身）毫无声息地推出了QuantumLink平台，这是一个专为Commandore 64/128游戏机玩家服务的图形网络平台，费率仅为每月9.95美元。这一收费标准完全可以成为网络游戏发展史上的一个重要里程碑，但由于当时的Commandore 64/128游戏机已步入衰退期，因此这项具有革命意义的收费标准如同雅克布斯的“家庭作坊”一样，未能引起人们的重视，否则网络游戏的革命很可能会提前来到。无论如何，更多运营商的介入令网络服务业的竞争激烈了起来，费率的下调已成必然趋势。这一阶段的美国网络游戏业如同现阶段国内的网络游戏业，运营商与游戏商在网络游戏身上大赚了一笔。1988年，Quantum从TSR手中购得“龙与地下城”的授权，三年后，第一款AD&D设定的网络游戏——《夜在绝冬城》（Neverwinter Nights）诞生，这款游戏运营了若干年，尽管所采用的图像技术陈旧不堪，但仅在它生命周期的最后一年，即1996年，它就为AOL带来了500万美元的收益。1991年，Sierra公司架设了世界上第一个专门用于网络游戏的服务平台——The Sierra Network（后改名为ImagiNation Network，1996年被AOL收购），这个平台有点类似于国内的联众游戏，它的第一个版本主要用于运行棋牌游戏（当时的比尔·盖茨是一名狂热的桥牌手，在Sierra Network上拥有自己的账号，且常常光顾），第二个版本加入了《叶塞伯斯的阴影》（The Shadow of Yserbius）、《红色伯爵》（Red Baron）和《幻想空间》（Leisure Suit Larry Vegas）等功能更为复杂的网络游戏。当时Sierra Network的运营者还曾同理查德·加利奥特联系，希望把开发中的《网络创世纪》搬到Sierra Network上。随后几年内，MPG-Net、TEN、Engage和Mplayer等一批网络游戏专用平台相继出现。三、第三代网络游戏：1996年至今 背景：越来越多的专业游戏开发商和发行商介入网络游戏，一个规模庞大、分工明确的产业生态环境最终形成。人们开始认真思考网络游戏的设计方法和经营方法，希望归纳出一套系统的理论基础，这是长久以来所一直缺乏的。游戏特征：“大型网络游戏”（MMOG）的概念浮出水面，网络游戏不再依托于单一的服务商和服务平台而存在，而是直接接入互联网，在全球范围内形成了一个大一统的市场。商业模式：包月制被广泛接受，成为主流的计费方式，从而把网络游戏带入了大众市场。第三代网络游戏始于1996年秋季《子午线59》的发布，这款游戏由Archetype公司独立开发。Archetype公司的创建者为克姆斯兄弟，即将发售的《模拟人生在线》的设计师迈克·塞勒斯和已被取消的《网络创世纪2》的设计师戴蒙·舒伯特都曾在这家公司工作过。《子午线59》本应是一款划时代的作品，可惜发行商3DO公司在决策过程中出现了重大失误，在游戏的定价问题上举棋不定，面对《网络创世纪》这样强大的竞争对手，先机尽失，“第一网络游戏”的头衔终被《网络创世纪》夺走。《网络创世纪》于1997年正式推出，用户人数很快即突破10万大关。《子午线59》和《网络创世纪》均采用了包月的付费方式，而此前的网络游戏绝大多数均是按小时或分钟计费（收费前通常会有一段时间的免费使用期）。采用包月制后，游戏运营商的首要经营目标已不再是放在如何让玩家在游戏里付出更多的时间上，而是放在了如何保持并扩大游戏的用户群上。与目前国内众多网络游戏“捞一票即走”的心态相比，月卡、季度卡和年卡等付费方式无疑更有利于网络游戏的长远发展，尽管从眼前来看，或许会失去部分经济利益。《网络创世纪》的成功加速了网络游戏产业链的形成，随着互联网的普及以及越来越多的专业游戏公司的介入，网络游戏的市场规模迅速膨胀起来。这其中既有《无尽的任务》、《天堂》、《艾莎隆的召唤》和《亚瑟王的暗黑时代》的成功，也有《网络创世纪2》、《银河私掠者在线》和《龙与地下城在线》的被取消。一些传统的单机游戏开发商，如Maxis、Westwood和暴雪等，也依托自己的品牌实力加入进来，《模拟人生在线》、《远离地球》、《星球大战：星系》和《魔兽世界》等都是期待度很高的作品，而更重要的则是一批中小开发商的涌现，它们在为网络游戏市场创造更丰富、更多样化的内容的同时，也为整个游戏业带来了不安定的泡沫因素。从游戏本身来看，第三代网络游戏这六年来更多的是在进化而没有任何质的飞跃，这种进化更多的是体现在技术和横向层面的拓宽上，而未能向前突破。大家也许都有这种感觉，尽管许多网络游戏的技术水准有了大幅的提高，但其游戏性却停滞不前甚至有所倒退，《网络创世纪》所取得的里程碑式的成就至今没有人能够超越。在这种情况下，网络游戏市场的高速膨胀反倒让人觉得有些反常。前面提到，在今年5月的GDC 2002上曾经举办了一场以“第三代网络游戏”为主题的研讨会，然而与会者却并未对“第三代网络游戏”的定义加以明确界定。在笔者看来，这一称谓实际只是一种虚指而已，从会上所讨论的内容来看，更多的是对如何改进当前这一代网络游戏的建议，而没有任何革命的征兆。毕竟，这一代网络游戏只存在了短短的六年时间，甚至尚未步入成熟，又何谈革命？尽管如此，这场研讨会还是给人以不少有益的启发，下面的这两个问题将成为今后几年内网络游戏亟待解决的课题：1、如何在保证网络世界的有序性的前提下，赋予玩家以更多的自由和权力？众所周知，一个封闭的小环境可以由玩家实现自律，而一个数万人的大环境根本不可能形成有效的自律。于是有人提出了创建一个“迪斯尼乐园”式的虚拟世界，这是一个拥有严格的游戏规则、受到严格控制的游戏环境，玩家只能在游戏中根据既定的规则去玩、去交流，而不能对这个世界做什么改变。但这一想法与网络游戏所具有的开放性和交互性相违背，很多设计师认为未来的网络游戏应该允许玩家自己动手创建，创建能够永久保存下来的个性化的物品或是能对游戏世界产生有意义的影响的内容，这是提高玩家忠诚度的最佳途径。不过由此带来的问题也很明显，例如玩家会不会利用手中的权力生产出大量垃圾，会不会引发新的作弊手段等等。控制和放权是件两难的事。如何在受控制的环境下赋予玩家更多的创造力？这是未来网络游戏需要面对的最重要的一个课题。2、如何尽可能地扩大网络游戏的目标消费群？从游戏本身来看，一方面应尽量降低操作的复杂度，另一方面应通过内容上的设计，让每月玩20个小时的玩家也能在游戏中体验到与每月玩200个小时的玩家相当的乐趣。这就需要赋予玩家以更多的创造力和归属感，例如鼓励玩家之间组成更紧密的群体、社区或国家。从游戏外部来看，一方面应尽可能为玩家提供更为方便的购买、付费和接入方式，另一方面必须为玩家提供更稳定的服务。与单机游戏不同，网络游戏出售的是一种服务而非产品，90%的工作量实际上是在游戏上市后才发生的，因此服务质量的优劣对于网络游戏的生存和发展可谓至关重要。

需求和需要是有一定区别的，需求是站在需和求两个角度看问题的，即需要和追求满足，强调需的实现，因而应该联系社会生产和社会制度理解需求；需要只强调需，虽然，也要联系社会生产，但对制度因素，对社会运动关系不大。由于需求问题研究的不深入，人们没有把需求和需要区别开来，因此，这里的“需要”是“需求”的代名词。也恰恰因为传统上人们只倾向于从需的角度认识需求，所以用“需要”来取代“需求”。本书除介绍别人的观点时，用其习惯使用的“需要”一词，除此之外都用“需求”，用“需要”时是与“需求”的涵义不同的。 1、关于需要问题的提出 国内学者大多认为，从理论上说，需要问题原本是心理学、经济学、社会学及行为科学等具体学科研究的对象之一，但由于需要概念本身内涵的一般***与普遍***，且随着对人的问题、主体***问题、价值问题等理论问题研究的深化，需要被提升为一个哲学范畴，并成为探讨人的问题的逻辑与历史的起点。 还有的学者认为，从现实角度看，我国现阶段社会的主要矛盾是人民日益增长的物质文化需要同落后的社会生产力之间的矛盾。以往人们倾向于对矛盾双方的生产力一方的研究，但对矛盾的另一方——人民的物质文化需要——的研究不够重视，这是不全面的。要科学地解决中国的现实问题，就必须研究现实中国人的需要问题。 2、关于需要概念的界定 国内学术界对需要范畴的界定较为典型的主要有如下七种意见： 第一种观点认为，需要就是人对某种目标的渴求和欲望。 第二种观点认为，需要是有机体的内部环境和外部生活条件的要求在人脑中的反映。 第三种观点认为，需要是人生存的一种状态，它表现为人对客观事物的依赖关系。 第四种观点认为，需要是指主体对其生存和发展条件的客观要求及其主观反映。 第五种观点认出，需要作为一般范畴，是包括人在内的一切生物有机体具有的一种特***，这是有机体为了维持正常运转（生存、发展）必须与外部世界进行物质、能量、信息交换而产生的一种摄取状态。 第六种观点认为，需要是生物体、人为维持内部及其与环境的平衡状态而产生的一种动态依赖关系和倾向。 第七种观点认为，需要是人与生俱来、通过活动不断产生，以矛盾状态表现出来并以交换关系为满足方式的人的生存状态。 以上七种意见中，前三种分别是从心理学、行为学及社会关系的角度概括的，虽然角度各异，但至少从以下两点是共同的：一是它们都将人作为需要的主体；二是肯定了需要是主体对一定对象的要求或依赖。后四种观点则是在前面具体学科归纳的基础上，从哲学的角度进行概括的。它们之间的异同主要表现在：首先，它们的分歧集中在对需要主体与需要***质的规定上。有人认为需要主体是包括人在内的一切生物有机体，而有人则认为应将人以外的其他生物体排除在外。对需要的***质，有“反映说”、“关系说”、“倾向说”及“状态说”等，根本分歧在于对需要***质是主观的还是客观的持不同意见。从物质资料生产的角度看，科学技术确实难于成为独立的生产力要素。其次，它们的共同之处在于，都看到了需要与人的生存发展条件密不可分，从而肯定了需要有客观必然***的一面。此外，它们虽然在需要主体上有分歧，但都承认人的需要与其他生物需要有着本质不同。 补充：Organizations are created to achieve a goal, mission or objective but they will only do so if they satisfy the needs, requirements and expectations of their stakeholders. Their customers, as one of the stakeholders, will be satisfied only if they provide products and services that meet their needs, requirements and expectations. Their other stakeholders (shareholders, employees, suppliers and society) will only be satisfied if the products and services provided to customers are produced and supplied in a manner that satisfies their needs, requirements and expectations.人们创建组织是为了实现目标、完成使命或达到目的，但只有在组织满足了其相关方的需求，要求和期望后才能做到。只有在组织满足了作为组织相关方之一的顾客的需求、要求和期望时，他们才会满意。只有在组织以满足组织的其它相关方（股东、员工、供方和社会）需求、要求和期望的方式向顾客提供产品和服务时，他们才会满意。We all have needs, wants, requirements and expectations. Needs are essential for life, to maintain certain standards, or essential for products and services, to fulfil the purpose for which they have been acquired. According to Maslow1 , man is a wanting being; there is always some need he wants to satisfy. Once this is accomplished, that particular need no longer motivates him and he turns to another, again seeking satisfaction. Everyone has basic physiological needs that are necessary to sustain life (food, water, clothing and shelter). Maslow"s research showed that once the physiological needs are fulfilled, the need for safety emerges. After safety come social needs followed by the need for esteem and finally the need for selfactualization or the need to realize one"s full potential. Satisfaction of physiological needs is usually associated with money – not money itself but what it can buy.我们都有需求、需要、要求和期望。需求是维持一定生活水准所必需的，或者说需求是产品和服务达成组织梦寐以求的目的所必需的。根据马斯洛理论，人是有欲望的，总有满足的需求。一旦实现了，那个特定的需求就不再是他的推动力了，他就会转向了一个需求，同样是寻求满足感。每个人都有基本的维持生命所必需的生理需求（食物、水、服装和安全）。马斯洛的研究表明生理需求得到满足后，安全需求就产生了。安全需求之后是社会需求【爱和归属——jelly】，而后是自尊需求，最后是自我实现或实现自我最大潜能的需求。生理需求通常关联到钱——不是钱本身，而是钱可以买到的那个东西。These needs are fulfilled by the individual purchasing, renting or leasing products or services. Corporate needs are not too dissimilar. The physiological needs of organizations are those necessary to sustain survival. Often profit comes first because no organization can sustain a loss for too long but functionality is paramount – the product or service must do the job for which it is intended regardless of it being obtained cheaply. Corporate safety comes next in terms of the safety of employees and the safety and security of assets followed by social needs in the form of a concern for the environment and the community as well as forming links with other organizations and developing contacts. Esteem is represented in the corporate context by organizations purchasing luxury cars, winning awards, superior offices and infrastructures and possessing those things that give it power in the market place and government. Selfactualization is represented by an organization"s preoccupation with growth, becoming bigger rather than better, seeking challenges and taking risks. However, it is not the specific product or service that is needed but the benefits that possession brings that is important. This concept of benefits is the most important and key to the achievement of quality. Unfortunately, ISO 9001 certification falls into the category of physiological needs simply because,for organizations in some supply chains, it has become a necessity for survival.这些需求通过个人对产品或服务的购买和租赁来满足。组织需求却大不相同。组织的生理需求是维持组织生存所必需的。通常利润排在首位，因为没有组织可以长期支撑亏损，但功能是至高无上的——产品或服务必须实现预期的功能，无论是多便宜得到的。其次是组织安全（需求），即员工的安全和财产的安全，其后是社会需求，即对环境、社区以及与其他组织构建的关系网。组织的自尊需求表现在购买豪华轿车、获得荣誉、高档写字间和基础设施，以及拥有让他们在市场和政府具有影响力的那些东西【比如：人大代表、政协委员、商会会长——jelly】。组织表现自我实现需求的方式是对成长的关注，成为最大而不是最强，寻求挑战，承担风险。但是，需求的不是特定的产品或服务，而是拥有这些产品或服务所带来的利益，这是最重要的。这种利益观念是成就质量最最重要和最最关键的。不幸的是，ISO9001认证被划归到了生理需求，仅仅是因为处在某一供应链中的组织，认证是组织生存所必需的。Requirements are what we request of others and may encompass our needs but often we don"t fully realize what we need until after we have made our request. For example, now that we own a mobile telephone we discover we really need handsfree operation when using the phone while driving a vehicle. Our requirements at the moment of sale may or may not therefore express all our needs. By focusing on benefits resulting from products and services, needs can be converted into wants such that a need for food may be converted into a want for a particular brand of chocolate. Sometimes the want is not essential but the higher up the hierarchy of needs we go, the more a want becomes essential to maintain our social standing, esteem or to realize our personal goals. Our requirements may therefore include such wants – what we would like to have but are not essential for survival.要求是我们让他人做什么，并且要求涵盖了我们的需求，但我们经常不能完全意识到我们需求什么，直到我们做出了要求。例如，我们拥有了手机后才发现，开车时实际上需要手机的免提功能。因此，在买卖过程中，我们的要求并不能完全表达我们所有的需求。在关注于产品和服务所带来的利益时，需求可以转化为需要，比如对食物的需求可以转化为对特定品牌巧克力的需要。有时候，需要不是必需的，而是需求的层次越高，需要就越是必需的，以维持我们的社会地位，自尊或实现个人目标。因此我们的要求可以包括这样的需要——我们希望得到的，而非生存的基本需要。In growing their business organizations create a demand for their products and services but far from the demand arising from a want that is essential to maintain our social standing, it is based on an image created for us by media advertising. We don"t need spring vegetables in the winter but because industry has created the organization to supply them, a demand is created that becomes an expectation. Spring vegetables have been available in the winter now for so long that we expect them to be available in the shops and will go elsewhere if they are not. But they are not essential to survival, to safety, to esteem or to realize our potential and their consumption may in fact harm our health because we are no longer absorbing the right chemicals to help us survive the cold winters. We might want it, even need it but it does us harm and there are plenty of organizations ready to supply us products that will harm us 组织在扩大其业务时创造了对其产品和服务的需求，并非产生于“想要”的需求【在英语中，需求分为三个层次，want，need，demand。want是想要，是一种很泛的想法；need则是需要什么东西，但是会有不同的满足方式；demand就是非常具象的需求了。——jelly】（“想要”是维持我们社会地位所必需的），而是通过媒体广告为我们创造出来的想象（而产生的需求）。我们在冬天不需求春天的蔬菜，但由于行业创造出来的组织提供了蔬菜，于是产生的需求就转化成为期望。现在冬天有春天的蔬菜已有好长时间了，以至于我们期望在商店能买到蔬菜，如果没有的话，我们就到别家商店去买。但是这不是生存、安全、自尊或实现潜能所必需的，而事实上消费这些蔬菜对我们身体是有害的，因为我们无法吸收帮助我们在冬天生存真正所必需的化合物。我们可能需要蔬菜，甚至需求蔬菜，但却是在伤害我们，有太多的组织正准备提供伤害我们的产品。Expectations are implied needs or requirements. They have not been requested because we take them for granted – we regard them to be understood within our particular society as the accepted norm. They may be things to which we are accustomed, based on fashion, style, trends or previous experience. One therefore expects sales staff to be polite and courteous, electronic products to be safe and reliable, policemen to be honest, coffee to be hot, etc. One would like politicians to be honest but in some countries we have come to expect them to be corruptible, dishonest or, at least, economical with the truth! As expectations are also born out of experience, some people might expect businessmen to be corruptible and selfish and it comes as no surprise to read about long drawn out court cases involving fraud and deceit. Likewise, after frequent poor service from a train operator, our expectations are that the next time we use that train operator, we will once again be disappointed.期望意味着需求或要求。不明确提出期望是因为我们认为那是理所应当的——在我们特定的社会里把期望理解为已接受了标准规范。期望是我们耳熟能详的东西，是基于时尚、风格、潮流或以往经验得到的东西。因此，人们期望销售人员是彬彬有礼的，电子产品是安全可靠的，警察是诚实的，咖啡是热的等等。在某些国家，人们期望政治家是诚实的，而我们则期望政治家是腐败份子，不诚实，或者至少在真实性方面是节俭的【没有真话的意思——jelly】。期望也产生于经验，某人期望商人是腐化堕落的，自私自利的，那么在阅读涉及欺诈方面的旷日持久的诉讼案件时，就习以为常了。同样，在经常得到一个火车运营商劣质服务后，我们的期望就是下次我们再用这家运营商时，我们还会失望的。摘自《ISO9000 Quanlity System handbook》