高分悬赏关于报纸栏目或特稿写作的英文文献极其中文译文!

----------------------- 页面 1-----------------------

Health Transition Review 6, 1996, 169-178

Searching for solutions: health concerns expressed in letters to

an East African newspaper column

a b b

Rose Asera , Henry Bagarukayo , Dean Shuey

b

and Thomas Barton

a

Dana Center, University of Texas at Austin

b

AMREF, Kampala

Questions people ask reveal not only the gaps of knowledge, but also reveal their existing

attitudes and ideas and personal problems (Arya and Bennett 1973).

Abstract

This study examined health care questions from an unusual data set: 1252 unsolicited letters

written over a three–year period to an advice column in an East African newspaper. Analysis of

the letters was a non-intrusive method of ascertaining prevalent health questions and opinions.

People wrote seeking information, advice, solutions, and reassurance about health problems.

Emotions expressed in the letters ranged from hope to fear and frustration. The written format

allowed questions which are generally too embarrassing or stigmatized to present in other public

or interpersonal settings. More than half the total letters raised questions about sexual behaviour,

sexually transmitted diseases, and HIV/AIDS. The letters present not only personal health

concerns, but also expectations of health-care quality and reflections on the medical options

presently available in Uganda. As a whole, the letters express dissatisfaction not only with the

outcomes of health encounters, but with the process. Of the letter writers with specific physical

complaints, more than one-third had already sought medical care and were dissatisfied with the

results. The letters were seeking solutions, especially for alleviation of symptoms and discomfort.

Almost equally prevalent was a plea for accurate and relevant health information; people not only

want to feel better, but they also want to understand their own health.

Health education campaigns are designed and directed in response to policy makers"

perceptions of major health problems. Health education is less often able to elicit and respond

directly to prevalent personal health concerns which may or may not coincide with

programmatic health priorities. This study examined questions from an unusual but revealing

data set: the unsolicited letters written over a three-year period to a health advice column in

an East African newspaper. These letters present concerns, comments and complaints about

writers" own health and about the health-care options available to them. The written format,

with its inherent distance and lack of direct personal contact, allowed questions which might

be too embarrassing or stigmatized to present in other public or interpersonal settings.

Only a few other studies and authors have sought to ‘read between the lines", analysing

questions presented in African newspapers, letters and other media. Jahoda (1959) examined

the transformation of attitudes and norms in social relationships as presented by letter writers.

He found the letters described conflicting forces promoting and opposing social change in the

realm of male-female relationships. Kisekka (1973) analysed letters written to a sexologist,

seeking advice about sexual behaviour. The letters contained information about how

individuals interpreted and internalized cultural values related to sexual behaviour. Arya and

----------------------- 页面 2-----------------------

170 Rose Asera, Henry Bagarukayo, Dean Shuey and Thomas Barton

Bennett (1973 uncovered misinformation embedded in the questions Ugandan university

students asked about syphilis and gonorrhoea.

Background to the study

The New Vision, a daily English-language newspaper published in Kampala, Uganda, runs a

weekly health section, which includes a question and answer column written by the African

1

Medical Research Foundation (AMREF) . The column answers between one and three letters

each week, but a much larger volume of letters is regularly received.

The letters examined in this study were written between 1991 and 1994, in the context of

a particular cultural and socio-political setting and time. The early 1990s in Uganda have

been a national period of post-conflict development, a period of increasing political stability

and economic growth. While the national economy and social services have been improving

since the NRM government took over in 1986, the infrastructure is still not able to provide

levels of service and care in health (or other social services) that were available in 1970.

Uganda in the 1960s had a strong and well established social infrastructure, including a well-

stocked and well-used health care system. Both the system and its subsequent breakdown

during more than a decade and a half of civil unrest from the early 1970s to the mid-1980s

have been well documented (Dodge and Wiebe 1985; Whyte 1990; Macrae, Zwi and Birungi

1993). During the years following Amin"s takeover in 1971, the national economic and social

infrastructure crumbled, and government services including health care weakened.

The letters present not only personal health concerns, but also expectations of health

care, beliefs about quality of care, and reflections on the medical options at present available

in Uganda. In addition the early 1990s overlap the period of national and international

recognition of the seriousness of the AIDS pandemic. Since 1986, the Government of

Uganda, numerous non-governmental organizations and international health organizations

have contributed to massive health education campaigns to control and prevent the further

spread of HIV/AIDS. A large number of letters present queries about HIV which reflect the

effects of the epidemic or of the health education effort.

In this study, we examined the full data set of published and unpublished letters, and all

letters were read by at least two researchers. The letters were coded for demographic

characteristics of the writers, nature of any physical complaints, and for less clinical issues

such as expressions of stigma, personal anxiety, misinformation, perceptions of the health

care system, and reasons for writing to an advice column. These categories arose from the

content of the letters themselves. When these categories were clustered, patterns of the letter

writers" health concerns emerged.2

Limitations

There are a number of limitations inherent in undertaking a content analysis of letters to a

newspaper. First, the letters are anecdotal and personal. Information contained in the letters

was variable in quality and quantity. Writers usually provided some descriptive information

about themselves and their problems, but it was not possible to obtain any additional details,

clarification, or follow-up. Secondly, because the medium was an advice column, the letters

1Related articles are in progress from the same data set documenting questions from letters specifically

about HIV and STDS.

2Content analysis of other newspaper columns using letter formats, for example, social advice, or legal

matters, could be used as an unobtrusive method to gauge popular concerns, and extract questions

which are too sensitive to emerge in other settings.

Health Transition Review

----------------------- 页面 3-----------------------

Health concerns in letters to an East African newspaper 171

focused on difficulties and problems, which does not provide a balanced picture including

successful treatment events.

Thirdly, the letter writers are self-selected, and thus not a statistically representative

sample either for the population as a whole or for young people from the mid-teens to the late

twenties. In addition, the writers are not geographically distributed. Uganda is one of the least

urbanized African countries (89% of the population lives in rural settings); urban inhabitants

were overrepresented among the letter writers. Not all letters carried any indication of

location, but New Vision is printed and principally distributed in urban areas like Kampala.

Lastly, the writers are all literate in English, which indicates some formal post-primary

education. The national adult (above 15 years) literacy rate in any language is slightly above

50 per cent; 63 per cent for males and 44 per cent for females (Ghana Ministry of Education

1994).

Although the letter writers are a self-selected group, we believe that the questions and

problems presented in the letters are not unique to this group nor directly related to the

qualities which make them non-representative. The presence of these problems in this urban,

literate subset of the population is only ‘the nose of the hippopotamus". The questions and

problems extend beyond the small visible portion above the surface.

The letters

Letters came on domestic aerogrammes, on unlined scraps of paper, or on folded sheets of

lined paper, some of it pulled from school notebooks. Some letters, in fact, resembled school

themes, with a title in capital letters underlined across the top of the page. Other requests

were written on reused paper with writing on the other side; paper itself was scarce. The

letters often began with a flowery salutation: ‘I take this golden opportunity to greet you and

to thank you for all of your good work towards promoting health and helping the people of

this country". After such greetings, the letters continued on a more personal note.

Each weekly printed column included questions and responses for one to three written

queries. Letters selected and published in the newspaper were edited and shortened for

reasons of space and confidentiality. The editor has used the column as a public forum for a

wide range of health education topics. Published responses to letters have been

informational, providing background about the condition and general guidelines for seeking

treatment, but not giving personal recommendations for treatment. Yet despite this constraint,

letters from concerned individuals were often long, involved, and almost confessional in tone.

Often, towards the end of the letter, the writers included a request that if the letter were to

be published in the newspaper, only their initials be used. Despite the potential motivation to

see one"s letter in print, as noted by Jahoda (1959), most often the Ugandan writers said that

they did not want their friends and relatives to recognize them. Some writers requested a

personal reply through the mail because they could not afford to buy a newspaper regularly.

A few sent stamps or envelopes with a request for a private reply.

Letters finished with pleas for advice, sometimes requesting advice ‘before it is too late".

The most common closings at the end of the letters were ‘confused", ‘worried", and

‘desperate", followed by a name, initials, or signifier such as ‘student" or ‘citizen". One

woman signed her letter ‘your obedient, miserable housewife".

Health Transition Review

----------------------- 页面 4-----------------------

172 Rose Asera, Henry Bagarukayo, Dean Shuey and Thomas Barton

The writers

There were a total of 1252 individual letter writers. Of the total letters, 189 letters were

3

published, and 1063 were unpublished. Among those who identified themselves by sex,

there were far greater numbers of male letter writers (588) than female writers (343). Jahoda

(1959) in a review of le

简介：Article Writing Techniques
by: Irene Vasilas

As you know a well written article can do wonders for your exposure and traffic.

The article should contain good useful information. It should be of interest to the reader. A boring article could possibly brand your site as boring also. Although, someone might find it useful if theyre having trouble sleeping. You might want to write about your tips and techniques and turn them into a series of articles for the newcomers that are starting out in this business.

An article that solves someones particular problem or answers their questions is a good article. You will be amazed at the number of people that will read an informative and interesting article.

Whatever it is you choose to write about, you will be starting from the headline; it should catch the peoples attention. It must make them read the next paragraph with eagerness to learn more. The title of your article can more or less determine the success of your articles exposure.

Your chosen article topic must match the contents or theme of your website. If your expertise is about banner marketing and your website reflects this, then writing your article about the pros and cons of banner advertising or creation could be a good option.

You article introduction should be powerful continuing from the headline. It must be compelling enough to keep the reader wanting more.

The content must be interesting and informative. It must contain what the headline and introduction promises. If the content is written with the intention to help the reader solve their problem or answer their questions, then your reader will appreciate your information and continue reading to the end and hopefully clicking on your link for more satisfying advice. At this point the reader already likes your work and the chances of him or her buying your product has been fused with trust.

As mentioned earlier the placement of your keywords is paramount to the success of your article reaching its target market. The keyword/s should exist in the headline of your article, in the introduction, and in the main body. They should not interfere with the flow of you message and they should look like they belong there. Your keyword density probably shouldnt exceed 3% in your article. This would simply mean 3 keywords for every hundred words.

Your article might be seen by thousands of potential customers, so it is important that you include a brief description of yourself or your product along with your name and website URL on the bottom. Your little ad here should entice the reader to visit the link.

Example:

W.B. Butler is the author of "The Ultimate Recipe to Making Money Online," a must read for increasing your sales, targeted traffic and web site ranking. Visit http://www.wealthybutler.com to grab your beautifully illustrated secret money making recipe now!

This article was posted on December 21, 2005