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概念化和圈定

Consistent with the emerging consensus in favor of a 符合正在形成的共识 ， 取而代之的是
broader construal of strategic alliances (see, for example, 更广泛的战略联盟识（见，例如，
Spekman and Sawhney 1990; Terpstra and Simonin 1992), Spekman和Sawhney 1990 ;特普斯特拉和西莫南1992 ） ，
a variety of forms of interorganizational cooperation that 各种形式的组织间合作
vary in the degree of rigidity of the cooperative arrange- 不同程度的僵硬的合作安排
ment are viewed here as falling within the domain of 精神被认为在此范围内的网域
strategic alliances. 战略联盟。 Thus a strategic alliance could be struc- 因此 ， 建立战略联盟 ， 可能是结构
tured as either . 化作为。

(i) a distinct corporate entity to which the alliance （一）一个独特的法人实体 ， 以该联盟
partners commit agreed upon skills and resources and in 合作伙伴承诺商定的技能和资源 ， 并在
which each of the alliance partners hold an equity position 每个联盟的合作伙伴持有的股份
(ie, an equity joint venture) or （即股权的合资企业）或

(ii) a distinct interorganizational entity to which the （二）一个独特的实体间的
alliance partners commit agreed upon skills and resources 联盟伙伴承诺商定的技能和资源
(eg, a nonequity venture such as a joint technology de- （例如， nonequity合资企业 ， 如联合技术日
velopment center or joint product development team). 开发中心或联合产品开发团队） 。
In effect, although some types of strategic alliances will 实际上，尽管某些类型的战略联盟将
have a finite life by definition (eg, a joint product devel- 有一个有限的生命的定义（例如，一个联合的产品开发，
opmentproject), other forms of strategic alliances, such as opmentproject ） ，其他形式的战略联盟，如
equity joint ventures, can theoretically exist in perpetuity. 股权的合资企业，理论上可以永远存在。
Alliances that do not involve shared equity are less rigid 联盟 ， 不涉及共享公平是那么严格
and may be easier to revise, reorganize, or terminate than 并可能会更容易修改，重组，或终止比
strategic alliances that entail equity sharing in a joint 战略联盟 ， 涉及公平分享的联合
venture. 合资企业。 As a result, when unstable market conditions 因此，当市场条件不稳定
prevail, such as is the case when the technological base of 占上风，如当时的情况的技术基础
an industry is evolving rapidly, the flexibility and adapt- 一个行业正在迅速演变的灵活性和适应，
ability offered by less rigid forms of alliances may be 能够提供比较灵活的形式的联盟 ， 可能是
viewed favorably. 认为利好消息。

Interorganizational cooperative relationships can exist 组织间的合作关系可以存在
between two firms, both of whose primary economic com- 两家公司之间，两者的主要经济通讯
mitment is to the same set of value chain activities (eg, mitment是相同的价值链活动（例如，
between Ford and Mazda; Wal-Mart and Dillards), or 福特和马自达之间;沃尔玛和Dillards ） ，或
between two firms whose primary economic commitments 两家公司之间的主要经济承诺
are to adjacent stages of the value chain. 是相邻阶段的价值链。 Such is the case 就是这种情况
in supplier-manufacturer alliances (eg, between Ford 在供应商与制造商联盟（如福特
Motor Co. and its auto parts suppliers). 汽车和汽车零部件供应商） 。 The former is 前者是
illustrative of a horizontal interorganizational cooperative 说明横向组织间的合作
relationship, and the latter of a vertical interorganizational 关系，而后者是纵向间
cooperative relationship. 合作关系。

Although interorganizational cooperation is a key facet 虽然是组织间合作的一个关键方面
of strategic alliances, this is by no means their only defin- 的战略联盟，这决不是他们的唯一defin -
ing characteristic. 技术特点。 Because the purpose of strategy is to 因为战略的目的是
achieve sustainable competitive advantage, an interorgani- 实现可持续的竞争优势，一个interorgani -
zational partnership can realistically be viewed as a strate- zational的伙伴关系 ， 才能实事求是地被视为一种策略
gic alliance only if it would enable the cooperating firms 社区联盟只有这将使公司的合作
to achieve a competitive advantage in the marketplace. 实现竞争优势的市场。 As 同样地
pointed out by Sheth and Parvatiyar (1992), the primary 所指出的那样谢斯和Parvatiyar （ 1992年） ，主要
purpose underlying close cooperation between organiza- 根本目的之间的密切合作组织
tions could either be strategic (eg, entry into a new 筹措既可以战略（例如，进入一个新的
product-market domain) or operational (eg, streamlining 产品市场的网域）或业务（例如，精简
operations activities such as automatic reordering and 业务活动 ， 如自动调整和
invoicing through electronic data interchange systems). 发票 ， 通过电子数据交换系统） 。
Thus, although the terms "strategic partnership," "strategic 因此，虽然条款“战略伙伴关系” ， “战略
partnering," and "strategic alliances" are sometimes used 建立伙伴关系， “和”战略联盟“ ， 有时用
to describe close cooperation between manufacturers and 描述之间的密切合作的制造商和
retailers in areas such as the development of systems for 零售商等领域的发展 ， 系统的
electronic data interchange (EDI) and procedures for effi- 电子数据交换（ EDI ）和程序的效率，
cient consumer response (ECR), these relationships are 系数消费者反应（化学） ，这些关系
primarily operations oriented. 主要业务为导向。 They do not evidence im- 他们没有证据免疫
portant characteristics of strategic alliances such as exclu- portant特色的战略联盟 ， 如排除，
sivity and nonimitability, and therefore cannot result in a sivity和nonimitability ，因此不能导致
sustainable competitive advantage. 可持续的竞争优势。 Often, they are repli- 通常，他们是复制
cated by the manufacturer"s competitors and its retail cated了制造商的竞争对手 ， 其零售
partners. 合作伙伴。 For example, an EDI system linking Procter and 例如，电子数据交换系统和连接宝洁
Gamble and Wal-Mart is duplicated by similar ones be- 宝洁和沃尔玛重复类似的是，
tween Wal-Mart and Procter and Gamble"s chief rivals 吐温沃尔玛和宝洁的主要竞争对手
(ie, Lever Brothers and Wal-Mart and Colgate-Palmolive （即杠杆兄弟和Wal - Mart 和广州高露洁棕榄
and Wal-Mart). 和沃尔玛） 。 Moreover, Procter and Gamble, Lever 此外，宝洁，杠杆
Brothers, and Colgate-Palmolive have similar relation- 兄弟，和高露洁公司也有类似的关系
ships with Wal-Mart"s major competitors, namely, Kmart 船舶与沃尔玛的主要竞争对手，即卡玛特
and Target. 和目标。 In other words, given that the three competing 换句话说，因为这三个竞争
manufacturers have similar cooperative arrangements 制造商也有类似的合作安排
with the three competing retailers, these partnerships can- 与三个竞争零售商，这些伙伴关系可以
not be instrumental in helping either an individual firm or 不得在帮助任何公司或个人
a partnership enhance its competitive position over the 一种伙伴关系加强其竞争地位的
others. 等等。 Hence characterizing such relationships between 因此 ， 这种关系的特点
manufacturing firms and marketing intermediaries as stra- 制造企业和营销中介机构的策略，
tegic alliances is questionable. 特捷联盟是值得怀疑的。 They are more often a cost 他们往往成本
associated with doing business with particular firms and/or 与做生意特别是企业和/或
competing in certain industries. 竞争在某些行业。

Motives Underlying Alliance Formation动机联盟形成

Enter new international markets.输入新的国际市场。 Firms seeking to enter企业寻求进入

new international markets, in their quest for growth and新的国际市场，在追求增长和

profitability, have historically pursued different entry盈利能力，从历史角度来看，推行不同的条目

strategies such as internal development, acquisitions,战略，如内部开发，收购，

mergers, and joint ventures.兼并和合资企业。 In recent years, however, the最近几年，但是，

growing recognition of the importance of entering and日益认识到，必须进入和

achieving a viable market position in all the major world实现一个可行的市场地位，在所有主要的世界

markets seems to have provided the impetus to an ever市场似乎已经提供了动力，以不断

increasing number of firms to more closely examine the越来越多的企业更加紧密地审查

desirability of entering into strategic alliances with other可取的进入战略联盟与其他

firms possessing complementary skills and resources.公司拥有互补的技能和资源。

Consider, for instance, the international entry strategies考虑，例如，国际进入战略
of two companies that dominate the breakfast cereals两家公司的主导谷类早餐
business in the United States--Kellogg Company and企业在美国-凯洛格公司和
General Mills Inc. Over the last 70 years, Kellogg has on通用磨坊公司在过去70年来，已对凯洛格
its own entered, nurtured, and achieved a dominant posi-自己的进入，培育，并取得了主导位置
tion in the market for breakfast cereals in a number of在市场化的谷类早餐在一些
Western European countries.西欧国家。 General.一般。 Mills, on the other米尔斯，另一方面
hand, which only recently began marketing its breakfast另一方面，这只是最近才开始销售其早餐
cereals in Western Europe, chose to enter a strategic alli-谷物在西欧，选择进入一个战略同盟
ance with Nestle SA Rather than developing its own平衡与雀巢公司，而不是发展自己的
distribution system from scratch, General Mills chose to分配制度从无到有，通用磨坊选择
take advantage of Nestle"s extensive sales force and distri-雀巢公司利用广泛的销售队伍和分布
bution infrastructure and its intimate knowledge of the配电基础设施和其熟悉的
Western European market (see Gibson 1990; Knowlton西欧市场（见吉布森1990 ;诺尔顿
1991). 1991年） 。 By pursuing this option, General Mills was also in追求这个选项，通用磨坊也
a position to accelerate its pace of entry into the market for能够加快进入市场
breakfast cereals in Western Europe.谷类早餐在西欧。

Circumvent barriers to entering new international mar-绕过障碍，进入新的国际3月，
kets. kets 。 When entering new international markets, firms often当进入新的国际市场，公司往往
enter alliances to reduce economic risk.进入联盟，以减少经济风险。 Moreover, by此外，通过
forming alliances with domestic firms that are familiar结成联盟与国内企业所熟悉
with the nuances of the local environment, a firm may also的细微差别，对当地环境，公司也可
be in a position to circumvent legal, political, and/or regu-能够规避法律，政治，和/或调节
latory barriers to entry, as well as reduce political risks. latory进入壁垒，以及降低政治风险。
Furthermore, the alliance partner"s experience working此外，联盟合作伙伴的工作经验
with local advertising agencies, marketing research agen-与当地的广告代理商，市场研究议程
cies, and mass communications media, as well as in-depth种，和大众传播媒体，以及深入
knowledge of local markets, may contribute to enhancing了解当地市场，可促进
the effectiveness of the overall marketing effort.效力的整体营销工作。

Protect competitive position in the home market.保护竞争地位的国内市场。 By通过
attacking a foreign competitor in its home market, and攻击外国竞争对手在其国内市场，并
thereby necessitating diversion of resources away from从而有必要的资源挪作
expansion into new international markets toward protect-进入新的国际市场上对保护，
ing its competitive position in its home market, a firm may技术的竞争优势在其本土市场，该公司可能会
be able to protect its share in the home market.能够保护其份额在国内市场。 Illustrative说明性
of the use of strategic alliances as a strategy to counter使用的战略联盟作为一项战略来对付
competition abroad in order to protect one"s market在国外的竞争，以保护自己的市场
position in the home market is Caterpillar"s alliance立场在国内市场是卡特彼勒公司联盟
with Mitsubishi of Japan (see Hout, Porter, and Rudden与日本三菱商事（见特，波特和Rudden
1982). 1982年） 。

Broaden product line/fill product line gaps.扩大产品线/填补产品线空白。 The prac-的实践
tice of firms entering into strategic alliances in order to泰斯公司进入战略联盟，以
broaden their product line and/or fill gaps in their existing扩大其产品线和/或填补空白的现有
product line is illustrated by alliances between US auto产品线之间的联盟表明了美国汽车
manufacturers and their Japanese counterparts, such as制造商和日本的，如
GM"s alliances with Isuzu and Suzuki of Japan, and Chrys-通用汽车公司的联盟，五十铃，铃木，日本和Chrys -
ler"s alliance with Mitsubishi of Japan.勒联盟与日本三菱商事的。

Enter new-product market domains/gain a foothold in输入新的产品市场领域/立足于
emerging industries.新兴产业。 As industries mature, firms finding随着产业的成熟，企业发现
their traditional markets stagnating and growth opportuni-其传统市场的停滞和经济增长机遇
ties severely curtailed have entered into strategic alliances关系严重限制进入战略联盟
in an attempt to diversify and take advantage of growth企图多样化，充分利用经济增长
opportunities in other product-market domains.机会在其他产品市场领域。 Also, fore-seeing the emergence of alternaUve, substitute technolo-此外，前看到的出现alternaUve ，替代技术，
gies, firms have entered into alliances with other策略，公司已进入联盟与其他
companies on the leading edge of new technologies to gain公司具有领先地位的新技术获得
a foothold in the emerging industries.立足于新兴产业。

Shape industry structure.形状产业结构。 Strategic alliances that foster战略联盟，促进
technological revolutions through the merging of hereto-技术革命，通过合并所附-
fore divergent technologies and create dramatic changes in前不同的技术，并创造了急剧的变化，
consumers" preferences can (i) significantly alter the bases消费者的偏好可以（一）大大改变基地
of competition by eroding the existing sources of competi-的竞争削弱了现有资源的竞争
tive advantage in an industry and (ii) shape industry struc-性优势的行业和（ ii ）塑造行业结构
ture by raising barriers to entry, creating new technological结构，提高进入壁垒，创造新技术
standards, establishing new distribution channels, and de-标准，建立新的分销渠道，并取消
veloping new suppliers. veloping新的供应商。 Innovations such as new product创新技术，如新产品
designs, new production processes, or new marketing ap-设计，新的生产工艺，或新的营销的AP -
proaches can propel an entire industry into a higher rate of proaches可以推动整个行业进入了更高的速度
growth by stimulating primary demand.通过刺激经济增长的主要需求。

Reduce potential threat of future competition.减少潜在威胁未来的竞争。 General一般
Electric, by licensing its advanced gas turbine technology电力，授权其先进的燃气涡轮技术
to foreign producers that it viewed as potential major外国生产商，它被视为潜在的主要
competitors, is reported to have not only created a captive竞争对手，据报告，不仅创造了一个俘虏
market for its technology in these countries but also elimi-市场的技术在这些国家，而且还elimi -
nated the threat of future competition from these compa-氨酸的威胁，未来的竞争从这些比较，
nies in the context of the US market (see Watson 1982).新兴工业化经济体在美国市场（见沃森1982年） 。

Raise entry barriers.提高进入壁垒。 By joining forces to gain addi-力量联手，获得加
tional strength, it might be possible for alliance members性的力量，有可能联盟成员
to erect entry barriers by denying competitors the base树立进入壁垒，不让竞争对手基地
volume necessary to exploit economies of scale (Watson体积必要利用规模经济（华生
1982). 1982年） 。

Overcome entry barriers.克服的进入壁垒。 Strategic alliances can also战略联盟，也可以
enable firms to overcome entry barriers.使企业克服进入壁垒。 For instance, the例如，
Canadian telecommunications industry, prior to its deregu-加拿大电讯业的发展，之前的deregu -
lation in 1992, was dominated by Northern Telecom whose化于1992年，主要是北方电信的
proprietary technology was in effect the industry standard.专有技术是有效的行业标准。
Subsequent to deregulation, AT&T, by forming a network放松管制以后， AT ＆ T公司，形成一个网络
of alliances with smaller Canadian firms such as Unitel联盟与加拿大的小公司，如联合
Communications

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